Description
Here are the requirements for Critical thinking Project 1:
I would like to review the rough draft of your first critical thinking project and make suggestions
After reading Chap 1 – 8 (pg 2 – 284 in the eBook) re-read Pages 130-136 from Chapter 4 of Boss.
(On the PDF version of the textbook, you want to look for page 41 and 42. (Use this link to access the PDF version)
Please write one single seamless, and coherent, 3 – 5 paragraph response to the following prompts. Brevity is important, so please don’t over do it:
What conclusions do both readings regarding draw regarding the existence of UFOs.
Compare nd contrast the arguments used by the authors of Project Blue Book and by Paytner to support their respective conclusion(s).
Evaluate the evidence each uses.
Discuss the role of cognitive and perceptual errors, as well as social errors in the debate over the existence of UFOs and be specific.
Do you believe in UFOs?
Answer #5 by identifying the evidence and premises you use to support your conclusion.
Unformatted Attachment Preview
Chapter 1
Critical Thinking: Why It’s Important
The aim of this tutorial is to help you learn the
basics of critical thinking and be able to identify
common barriers to effective critical thought.
Critical Thinking: A Vital Skill
2
Critical thinking provides us with a crucial set of skills we
need to make decisions and resolve issues that arise in
our everyday lives.
Critical thinking, like logic, requires learning how to
think rather than simply what to think. The word “critical”
is derived from the Greek word kritikos, which means
“discernment,” “the ability to judge,” or “decision
making.”
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Milgram Experiment
3
Courtesy of Alexandra Milgram
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Logic
4
Logic is a crucial part of critical thinking and requires
good analytical skills. Logic is defined as “the study of
the methods and principles used in distinguishing
correct (good) arguments from incorrect (bad)
arguments.”
Critical thinking requires applying the rules of logic as
well as gathering evidence, evaluating it, and coming up
with a plan of action.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Logic versus Opinion
5
In contrast to arguments based on logic, arguments
based on opinion are defined as “beliefs based solely
on personal feelings rather than reason or facts.”
While we are all entitled to our opinions, arguments
based solely on opinions are not necessarily reasonable
and may encourage us to make poor choices or act in
ways we may later regret. Sometimes uninformed
opinions can be harmful, both to us and to society.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Cognitive Development in College
Students
6
Educational researcher William Perry, Jr. (1913–1998)
identified several stages of cognitive development in
college students. Later researchers simplified his
findings into three separate developmental stages:
dualism, relativism, and commitment.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Stage One: Dualism
7
Dualism is the first stage of cognitive development and
is common among freshmen and many sophomores.
It involves the assimilation of knowledge and experience
in a simple, “dualistic” way, viewing issues as either right
or wrong. Dualistic thinkers see knowledge existing
outside themselves and look to authority figures for
answers.
When researching an issue, dualistic students often
exhibit confirmation bias, which involves only seeking
out evidence that supports their views, and dismissing or
ignoring contradictory evidence.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Stage Two: Relativism
8
Rather than accepting that ambiguity may be
unavoidable, relativistic thinkers reject the dualistic
viewpoint and move to the opposite extreme arguing
that all truth is relative or just a matter of opinion. People
at this stage believe that stating one’s opinion is the
proper form of communication, and they look down on
challenging others’ opinions as judgmental and even
disrespectful. Despite their outward relativism, they still
look to authority figures, such as professors, to confirm
their opinions.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Stage Three: Commitment
9
As students mature, they come to the realization that not
all thinking is equally valid. Not only can authority figures
be mistaken, but a certain level of uncertainty and
ambiguity is unavoidable. When students at this stage
experience uncertainty, they are now able to make
decisions and commit to particular positions on the basis
of reason and the best evidence available. At the same
time, as independent thinkers, they are open to
challenge and are flexible enough to change their
positions as new evidence becomes available.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Characteristics of a Good Critical
Thinker (1)
10
Critical thinking is not a single skill. Rather, it is a collection
of skills that enhance and reinforce each other. These
skills include:
Analytical skills – Your ability to analyze and provide
logical support for your beliefs
Communication and literacy skills – Your ability to listen,
speak, and write effectively and the awareness of your
own communication style
Research and inquiry skills – Your ability to gather,
evaluate, and synthesize supporting evidence
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Characteristics of a Good Critical
Thinker (2)
11
Flexibility and tolerance of ambiguity – The ability to
flexibly adapt to changing situations
Open-minded skepticism – The ability to overcome
personal prejudices and biases and critically examine an
issue before coming to a decision; this often involves the
method of doubt, first proposed by French philosopher
René Descartes (1596–1650), which involves setting
aside our preconceptions and adopting a default
position of skepticism.
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René Descartes
12
© Imagno/Hulton Archive/Getty Images
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Characteristics of a Good Critical
Thinker (3)
13
Creative problem solving skills – The ability to view
problems from multiple perspectives and come up with
original solutions to complex problems
Attentiveness, mindfulness, and curiosity – The ability to
remain curious and attentive to the world and consider
multiple opinions
Collaborative learning skills – The ability to recognize
and anticipate the reactions of others and a willingness
to collaborate with others to share and gain knowledge
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Multiple Potentially Deadly EF3 Tornadoes,
Causing Millions of Dollars of Damage
14
© Stewart F. House/Getty Images
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An MP3 Player
15
© Justin Sullivan/Getty Images
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Critical Thinking and Self-Development
16
Critical thinking is not just about abstract thought. It is also
about self-improvement and your whole development as a
person. Self-examination is an important part of this
process. Good critical thinkers take charge of their lives
and choices. By contrast, poor critical thinkers allow
themselves to be controlled by circumstances and often
deal ineffectively with problems, which often results in
depression, anger, or other emotional problems.
Developing a rational life plan is an effective way of
avoiding these problems.
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Age Differences in Depression
17
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A Life Plan Is Like a Flight Plan
18
© Geoff Tompkinson/The Image Bank/Getty Images
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Other Features of a Good Critical
Thinkers
19
Effective critical thinkers exhibit other traits and
characteristics. These include:
The ability to challenge social injustices as well as being
able to respond intelligently and thoughtfully to challenges
to our own belief systems
The cultivation of high self-esteem, proactive attitude, and
self-direction, traits common in autonomous critical thinking
The involvement in democratic politics and the ability to
critically analyze political actors and issues
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Martin Luther King
20
© Everett/CSU Archives/Newscom
King was willing to go to jail, rather than back down on his goal
of equality for all people.
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Elizabeth Cady Stanton
© Bettmann/Corbis
21
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Barriers to Effective Critical Thinking
22
Effective critical thinking involves sharpening our
resistance to irrational or narrow-minded arguments.
Recognizing these irrational or narrow-minded
arguments can sharpen our critical thinking skills and
help devise effective strategies to counter them.
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Prisoners at Guantanamo Bay
© Ron Sachs/CNP/Corbis
23
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Tiananmen Square, China
24
© Jeff Widener/AP Images
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The Three-Tier Model of Thinking
25
The processes used in critical thinking can be broken
down into three tiers or levels: experience,
interpretation, and analysis.
Experience, the foundational level of critical thinking,
involves firsthand experience as well as empirical facts
derived from other sources.
Interpretation involves trying to make sense of our
experiences.
Analysis involves raising our level of thinking and critically
analyzing our interpretations of an experience.
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The Three Levels of Thinking
26
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Resistance
27
None of us likes to be wrong and when we are
challenged, we often exhibit resistance, which is defined
as “the use of immature defense mechanisms that are
rigid, impulsive, maladaptive, and nonanalytical.”
Resistance acts as a barrier to effective critical thinking.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Types of Resistance (1)
28
There are several types of resistance; they include
avoidance, anger, clichés, denial, ignorance, conformity,
struggling, and distractions.
Avoidance involves escaping or intentionally avoiding
certain people and situations.
Anger involves responding to challenges with threatening
physical or verbal cues.
Clichés are often-repeated statements that sidetrack the
real issues and prevent effective critical thought.
Denial involves ignoring or refuting challenging viewpoints
or evidence.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Types of Resistance (2)
29
Ignorance is a type of resistance where we intentionally
avoid learning about a particular issue.
Conformity involves going along with group or peer
viewpoints even when you disagree with them.
Struggling involves getting so caught up in the minute
details of an issue that nothing gets accomplished.
Distractions are hindrances that prevent clear thinking and
effective critical analysis.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Is Ignorance Bliss?
30
© Corbis
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Narrow-Mindedness
31
Like resistance, narrow-mindedness and rigid beliefs, such
as absolutism, egocentrism, fear of challenge,
ethnocentrism and anthropocentrism, act as barriers to
effective critical thinking.
Absolutism is a perspective that sees the world in “black
and white” absolutes.
Egocentrism is a perspective that sees the self as the
center of all things.
Fear of challenge involves reluctance to stand up to others
who we believe may have different opinions
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Statue of Buddha
32
© Photodisc/Getty Images
According to Buddhist teaching, mental hindrances like
distractions keep us from clear understanding.
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Stephen Hawking (1)
© David Silverman/Getty Images
33
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Narrow-Mindedness (2)
34
Ethnocentrism is an uncritical and unjustified belief in the
inherent superiority of one’s own group or culture.
Anthropocentrism is a belief that humans are the central
or the most significant entity in the universe.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Funeral of Sunando Sen
35
© Matthew McDermott/Polaris/Newscom
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Rationalization and Doublethink
36
When we are faced with difficult choices or decisions, we
often engage in rationalization to justify our decisions
made on the basis of personal opinion or bias.
Because rationalization involves ignoring competing
claims, people who engage in it often get caught up in
doublethink. It is defined as holding two contradictory
views, or “double standards,” at the same time and
believing both to be true.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Cognitive and Social Dissonance
37
We are most likely to modify or critically analyze our views
when we encounter cognitive or social dissonance,
which occurs when we encounter new ideas or social
behavior that contradicts or conflicts with our worldviews.
Evidence suggests that when people change their
behavior, changes in their beliefs follow.
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U.S. Median Income by Race,
Ethnicity, and Gender, 2013
38
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Conclusions
39
As explored in the previous slides, effective critical thinking
requires development of a collection of skills, including
attentiveness, open-mindedness, strong communication,
and effective analytical, research, and problem-solving
skills.
Critical thinkers also need to be aware of barriers to
effective critical thinking, such as habitual use of
resistance and different types of narrow-mindedness.
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Perspectives on Affirmative Action in
College Admissions
© Bill Pugliano/Getty Images
40
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 2
Reason & Emotion
The aim of this tutorial is to help you learn to
understand the roles of reason and emotion in
critical thinking.
How Do Reason and Emotion Work
Together in an Activity Such as Skydiving?
2
© Digital Vision/Getty Images
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Reason and Emotion Play Important
Roles in Critical Thinking
3
Reason is the process of supporting a claim or
conclusion based on evidence. It involves both the
disciplined use of intelligence and the application of
rules for problem solving.
In logic, reasoning is presented in a structured form
supported by premises. However, everyday uses of
reason are broader and require creative thought and
emotional discernment.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Reasoning about Problems in a
Familiar Context
© svera/iStock/Getty Images
© QUAYSIDE/iStock/Getty Images
4
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Reason Contains a Number of
Important Components and Strategies
5
These components include the ability to engage in
abstract thinking and behavioral modification.
Reason also involves the embrace of different cognitive
strategies, such as deduction, generalization, and
imagination. It is also important in spatial-temporal
problem solving in fields, such as mathematics,
engineering, and architecture.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Great Chain of Being
6
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Reason Has Traditionally Been Linked
with Males in Western Thought
7
Beginning with Aristotle, Western thought has generally
linked men to reason and women to the realm of nature.
In order to be effective critical thinkers, we must be
willing to use reason to examine these assumptions
regarding gender and age.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Reason Can Operate at Both the
Conscious and Unconscious Levels
8
Traditionally seen as a conscious activity, recent
cognitive research suggests much of reasoning is in fact
unconscious and automatic.
Studies of brain function indicate that dreams involve
cerebral activity related to reason and problem solving.
Many important knowledge breakthroughs, such as the
creation of the periodic table by Russian chemist Dmitri
Mendeleyev, occurred through dream-inspired guidance.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Temple Grandin
9
© Nancy Kaszerman/ZUMA/Corbis
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Your Brain on Video Games
© Daniel Kopton/Corbis
10
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Reason Is an Essential Component of
Critical Thinking
11
Reason helps us analyze beliefs and evidence, to make
good life choice decisions, to cope with adversity, and to
resolve problems. In critical thinking, reason does not
operate alone but works together with other faculties,
such as emotion.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
The Role of Emotion in Critical
Thinking (1)
12
Emotion is a “state of consciousness in which joy,
sorrow, fear, etc., is experienced, as distinguished from
cognitive and volitional consciousness.”
In Western culture, emotion has been traditionally
viewed as the opposite of reason. In contrast, other
cultures have emphasized the importance of positive
emotions in the development of critical thinking skills.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Can You Identify Which Emotions Are
Being Shown Here?
13
© Pixland/Jupiterimages
© McGraw-Hill
Education/Lars A. Niki,
photographer
© Westend61/Getty Images
© Image Source/Getty
Images
© Photodisc/Getty Images
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Hot or Not? (1)
© skodonnell/iStock/Getty Images
14
Do you think emotion or reason
plays a more pivotal role in critical
thinking?
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
The Role of Emotion in Critical
Thinking (2)
15
As critical thinkers, we need to be aware of the dangers
of emotions, such as anger and fear, as barriers to
critical thought and the benefits of using emotions, such
as empathy and compassion, to enhance our critical
thinking abilities.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Rosa Parks
16
© Don Cravens/Time & Life Images/Getty Images
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The Importance of Emotional
Intelligence
17
Emotional intelligence – The ability to perceive,
appraise, express, and regulate emotion is positively
related to abstract reasoning ability.
Emotions such as empathy, moral indignation, love,
happiness, and even guilt can have a positive effect on
our reasoning by influencing us to make better
decisions.
An empathetic person is more flexible and open to other
perspectives. This openness motivates critical analysis
of problems and situations and helps formulate
appropriate action plans and responses.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Emotions Can Also Work against
Critical Thinking
18
Although emotions can motivate better decision-making,
they can also hinder it. Examples of the negative role
emotions can play include the presence of fear and
anger in action plans.
Additionally, we are vulnerable to emotional appeals,
such as those in advertising and political campaigns.
These appeals, often devoid of evidence and good
reasoning, can distract us from more important issues or
encourage regrettable actions.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Integrating Reason and Emotion
19
Reason and emotion provide a double-pronged tool for
critical thinking.
Emotion alerts us to problems and other people’s
perspectives. Emotion also motivates action and
problem resolution.
Using our emotions in conjunction with reason allows us
to make better-informed decisions.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
The Mozart Effect
20
© Photodisc/Getty Images
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Artificial Intelligence (AI), Reasoning,
and Emotion
21
Artificial intelligence is defined as “the study of
computations that make it possible to perceive, reason,
and act.” Its goals include the enhancement of human
reasoning, the creation of intelligent machines, and the
development of sociable, intelligent machines that can
cooperate with people.
Given recent advances in these endeavors, as critical
thinkers we need to move beyond questioning whether
AI is capable of reasoning and emotion and not hold AI
to higher standards of proof than we apply to humanity.
AI possesses enormous potential to enhance our critical
thinking Copyright
abilities.
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“Only a Human Can…”
22
© UPMC
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The Turing Test
23
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Hot or Not? (2)
© skodonnell/iStock/Getty Images
24
Do some computers have the
ability for rational thought?
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Mother Teresa
© Tim Graham/Getty Images
25
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Faith and Reason
26
Faith involves not only belief in God, but also an act of
trust in and obedience to God. Traditionally, faith and
reason have been seen as uneasy co-inhabitants of the
human mind. Whatever one’s personal beliefs, it is
important for us as critical thinkers to connect faith with
reason, in order to balance belief and doubt.
Integrating reason into faith allows us to evaluate the
competing claims of faith and revelation and to question
faith-based claims that are inconsistent with evidence or
reason.
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Three Approaches to Faith and
Reason
27
Fideism argues that faith transcends reason and that
the divine is revealed through faith and revelation, not
through reason or empirical evidence.
Rationalism argues that religious beliefs should be
consistent with reason and evidence.
Critical rationalism argues that divine knowledge can
derive from both faith and reason, but that both sources
should be compatible with one another.
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Abraham and His Son Isaac
© Time Life Pictures/Mansell/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images
28
Abraham making preparations to sacrifice his son
Isaac at God’s command
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Albert Schweitzer
29
© PhotoQuest/Getty Images
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Conclusions
30
As the previous slides have shown, effective critical
thinking requires exercise of both reason and emotion in
order to be most effective.
Also, reason and faith are compatible. Indeed, applying
reason to faith is important for it protects us from faithbased knowledge and arguments not supported by
evidence.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Perspectives on Reason and Proofs for
the Existence of God
31
© Richard I’Anson/Lonely Planet Images/Getty Images
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Chapter 3
Language & Communication
The aim of this tutorial is to help you to
understand the relationships among language,
communication, and critical thinking.
A Car-Bombing Site
2
© Ibrahim Alaguri/AP Images
How do poor communication skills contribute to distrust
and even acts of terrorism?
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Good Communication Skills Are an
Essential Part of Critical Thinking
3
Communication skills enable effective critical thinking
and decision-making.
Effective communication involves several related skills:
Keeping avenues of communication open
Communicating with others clearly and accurately
Taking care with word use
Developing awareness of your own and others’ language use
People’s communication styles
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Language Is the Key
4
Language is a system of communication with arbitrary
symbols, whether spoken, written, or nonverbal.
By creating a shared reality among people, language is
the primary means of transmitting cultural concepts and
traditions.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Languages of the World
5
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Not All Language Is Verbal
6
© Elva Dorn/Alamy
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Functions of Language
7
Language has one basic function: the communication
of information about ourselves and the world.
Other functions of language include:
Directive language – Used to direct or influence actions
Expressive language – Communicates feelings and attitudes
Emotive words – Used to generate emotive impact
Ceremonial language – Used in prescribed formal
circumstances
Most languages serve multiple functions.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Nonverbal Language
8
Nonverbal cues, such as body language and vocal tone,
often help us interpret verbal communication.
Nonverbal cues are commonly used to reinforce verbal
communication.
Images, such as artwork or photographs, are also
means of communicating ideas and feelings.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Animal Language
9
© Jocelyn Winwood/Getty Images
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Language Enables Effective Critical
Thinking
10
Using language effectively to convey information,
provide direction, and express feelings is essential for
individual and collaborative critical thinking.
It is important to understand that while language greatly
enriches our communication of ideas and feelings, it
also can contribute to ambiguity and misunderstanding.
Intellectual curiosity and awareness of other people’s
language use are two critical thinking skills that can
make us less susceptible to misunderstandings and
manipulation.
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distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Ed
