Description
1000 words. Apa style
Unformatted Attachment Preview
UN Human Development Reports for the years 2006, , 2018 and 2020 .
The individual papers are concerned exclusively with metrics and, in particular, its
changes over time (in the 2006, 2018 and 2020 Reports) for countries with either a
high (from 2018, subdivided into very high and high) level of human development
(three countries), medium level of development (three countries) or low level of
human development (three countries).
For each student, the groups must differ by at least one country per level of human
development.
A) A table is formed for each level of human development, based on the time stations
(2006, 2018, 2020).
B) Comment on the changes, in the position of the countries and in their performance
based on the individual indicators (stability, rise or fall in the order of the ranking).
C) An inferential assessment of each student can be made. Except for the Tables, the
text must be over 500 words.
The annotation will be based on the Tables and on the human development indicators
which are usually the first tables in all 3 reports .
The countries selected for commentary are distributed at the respective levels and
have been selected from the 20
High level : England , Russia , Romania
Medium level : India , Pakistan , Syria
Low level : Lesotho , Afghanistan , Sierra Leone , Afghanistan , Sierra Leone
Human Development Report 2020
The next frontier
Human development and the Anthropocene
Human Development Report 2020
The next frontier
Human development and the Anthropocene
Copyright @ 2020
1 UN Plaza, New York, NY 10017 USA
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
The next frontier
Human development and the Anthropocene
By the United Nations Development Programme
prior permission.
Sales no.: E.21.III.B.1
ISBN:
978-92-1-126442-5
eISBN:
978-92-1-005516-1
Print ISSN: 0969-4501
eISSN:
2412-3129
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library and
Library of Congress
General disclaimers. The designations employed and the presentation
The 2020 Human Development Report
of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any
The 30th Anniversary 2020 Human
opinion whatsoever on the part of the Human Development Report
Development Report is the latest in the series
Office (HDRO) of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
of global Human Development Reports
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its
published by the United Nations Development
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Programme (UNDP) since 1990 as independent
Dotted and dashed lines on maps represent approximate border lines
and analytically and empirically grounded
for which there may not yet be full agreement.
discussions of major development issues, trends
and policies.
The findings, analysis, and recommendations of this Report, as with
previous Reports, do not represent the official position of the UNDP or
Additional resources related to the 2020 Human
of any of the UN Member States that are part of its Executive Board.
Development Report can be found online at
They are also not necessarily endorsed by those mentioned in the
http://hdr.undp.org. Resources on the website
acknowledgments or cited.
include digital versions and translations of
the Report and the overview in more than 10
The mention of specific companies does not imply that they are
languages, an interactive web version of the
endorsed or recommended by UNDP in preference to others of a similar
Report, a set of background papers and think
nature that are not mentioned.
pieces commissioned for the Report, interactive
data visualizations and databases of human
Some of the figures included in the analytical part of the report where
development indicators, full explanations of the
indicated have been estimated by the HDRO or other contributors to the
sources and methodologies used in the Report’s
Report and are not necessarily the official statistics of the concerned
composite indices, country profiles and other
country, area or territory, which may use alternative methods. All the
background materials, and previous global,
figures included in the Statistical Annex are from official sources. All
regional and national Human Development
reasonable precautions have been taken by the HDRO to verify the
Reports. Corrections and addenda are also
information contained in this publication. However, the published
available online.
material is being distributed without warranty of any kind, either
expressed or implied.
The cover conveys the complex connections
between people and the planet, whose
The responsibility for the interpretation and use of the material lies with
interdependence is a hallmark of the
the reader. In no event shall the HDRO and UNDP be liable for damages
Anthropocene. The image evokes the many
arising from its use.
possibilities for people and planet to flourish
if humanity makes different development
Printed in the USA, by AGS, an RR Donnelley Company, on Forest
choices, ones that aim to enhance equity,
Stewardship Council certified and elemental chlorine-free papers.
foster innovation and instill a sense of
Printed using vegetable-based ink.
stewardship of nature.
Empowered lives.
Resilient nations.
H U M A N D E V E LO P M E N T
RE PO RT 2020
The next frontier
Human development and the Anthropocene
H U M A N D E V E LO P M E N T RE PO RT 2020
Team
Director and lead author
Pedro Conceição
Research and statistics
Jacob Assa, Cecilia Calderon, Fernanda Pavez Esbry, Ricardo Fuentes,
Yu‑Chieh Hsu, Milorad Kovacevic, Christina Lengfelder, Brian Lutz,
Tasneem Mirza, Shivani Nayyar, Josefin Pasanen, Carolina Rivera Vázquez,
Heriberto Tapia and Yanchun Zhang
Production, communications, operations
Rezarta Godo, Kristin Hagegård, Jon Hall, Seockhwan Bryce Hwang,
Admir Jahic, Fe Juarez Shanahan, Sarantuya Mend, Anna Ortubia, Yumna
Rathore, Dharshani Seneviratne and Marium Soomro
ii
H U M A N D E V E LO P M E N T R E PO RT / 2020
Foreword
Hidden in the long shadow of Covid-19, 2020 has been a dark
year. Scientists have been forewarning a pandemic like this
for years, pointing to the rise in zoonotic pathogens—those
that jump from animals to humans—as a reflection of the
pressures people put on planet Earth.
Those pressures have grown exponentially over the past
100 years. Humans have achieved incredible things, but we
have taken the Earth to the brink. Climate change, ruptur‑
ing inequalities, record numbers of people forced from their
homes by conflict and crisis—these are the results of societ‑
ies that value what they measure instead of measuring what
they value.
In fact, the pressures we exert on the planet have become
so great that scientists are considering whether the Earth
has entered an entirely new geological epoch: the Anthro‑
pocene, or the age of humans. It means that we are the first
people to live in an age defined by human choice, in which
the dominant risk to our survival is ourselves.
Advancing human development while erasing such plan‑
etary pressures is the next frontier for human development,
and its exploration lies at the heart of this 30th anniversary
edition of UNDP’s Human Development Report.
To survive and thrive in this new age, we must redesign a
path to progress that respects the intertwined fate of people
and planet and recognizes that the carbon and material
footprint of the people who have more is choking the op‑
portunities of the people who have less.
For example, the actions of an indigenous person in the
Amazon, whose stewardship helps protect much of the
world’s tropical forest, offsets the equivalent of the carbon
emissions of a person in the richest 1 percent of people in
the world. Yet indigenous peoples continue to face hardship,
persecution and discrimination.
Four thousand generations could live and die before the
carbon dioxide released from the Industrial Revolution to
today is scrubbed from our atmosphere, and yet decision
makers continue to subsidize fossil fuels, prolonging our car‑
bon habit like a drug running through the economy’s veins.
And while the world’s richest countries could experience up
to 18 fewer days of extreme weather each year within our life‑
time because of the climate crisis, the poorest countries face
up to 100 extra days of extreme weather. That number could
still be cut in half if the Paris Agreement is fully implemented.
It is time to make a change. Our future is not a question of
choosing between people or trees; it is neither or both.
When the Human Development Report first challenged
the primacy of growth as the measure of progress in 1990,
the Cold War still shaped geopolitics, the World Wide Web
had just been invented and very few people had heard of
climate change. In that moment UNDP offered a forwardlooking alternative to GDP, ranking all countries by whether
people had the freedom and opportunity to live a life they
valued. In so doing, we gave voice to a new conversation
on the meaning of a good life and the ways we could
achieve it.
Thirty years on, much has changed, but hope and possi‑
bility have not. If people have the power to create an entirely
new geological epoch, then people also have the power to
choose to change. We are not the last generation of the
Anthropocene; we are the first to recognize it. We are the ex‑
plorers, the innovators who get to decide what this—the first
generation of the Anthropocene—will be remembered for.
Will we be remembered by the fossils we leave behind:
swaths of species, long extinct, sunken and fossilized in
the mud alongside plastic toothbrushes and bottle caps, a
legacy of loss and waste? Or will we leave a much more valu‑
able imprint: balance between people and planet, a future
that is fair and just?
The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene sets out this choice, offering a thought-provoking,
necessary alternative to paralysis in the face of rising poverty
and inequalities alongside alarming planetary change. With
its new, experimental Planetary pressures–adjusted Human
Development Index, we hope to open a new conversation on
the path ahead for each country—a path yet unexplored.
The way forward from Covid-19 will be the journey of a gen‑
eration. We hope it is one that all people will choose to travel
together.
Achim Steiner
Administrator
United Nations Development Programme
FO R E WO R D
iii
H U M A N D E V E LO P M E N T RE PO RT 2020
Acknowledgements
Every person, everywhere in the world,
has been affected by the Covid-19
pandemic. Amidst untold suffering the
process of producing a Human Development Report often appeared less
urgent over the course of 2020. The
Report team felt the need to document
the unfolding and devastating impact
of the pandemic on human development, supporting UNDP’s response to
the crisis. The well planned process of
consultations and team meetings had
to be scrapped or changed in unprecedented ways. This implied reinventing the Report’s typical production
process. At many points it seemed
that the Report simply could not be
finished on time. Doing so was possible
only because of the conviction that
the Report had something important
to say that speaks to this year’s crisis,
the obligation to honour 30 years of
Human Development Reports and
the encouragement, generosity and
contributions of so many, recognized
only imperfectly and partially in these
acknowledgments.
The members of our Advisory Board,
led by Tharman Shanmugaratnam
and A. Michael Spence as Co-Chairs,
supported us in multiple and long vir‑
tual meetings, providing extensive ad‑
vice on four versions of lengthy drafts.
The other members of the Advisory
Board were Olu Ajakaiye, Kaushik Basu,
Haroon Bhorat, Gretchen C. Daily, Marc
Fleurbaey, Xiheng Jiang, Ravi Kanbur,
Jaya Krishnakumar, Melissa Leach,
Laura Chinchilla Miranda, Thomas Pik‑
etty, Janez Potočnik, Frances Stewart,
Pavan Sukhdev, Ilona Szabó de Carv‑
alho, Krushil Watene and Helga Weisz.
Complementing the advice from our
Advisory Board, the Report’s Statisti‑
cal Advisory Panel provided guidance
iv
on several methodological and data
aspects of the Report, in particular re‑
lated to the calculation of the Report’s
human development indices. We are
grateful to all the panel members:
Mario Biggeri, Camilo Ceita, Ludgarde
Coppens, Koen Decancq, Marie Hal‑
dorson, Jason Hickel, Steve Macfeely,
Mohd Uzir Mahidin, Silvia Montoya,
Shantanu Mukherjee, Michaela Sai‑
sana, Hany Torky and Dany Wazen.
Many others without a formal ad‑
visory role offered advice, including
Inês L. Azevedo, Anthony Cox, Andrew
Crabtree, Erle C. Ellis, Eli Fenichel,
Victor Galaz, Douglas Gollin, Judith
Macgregor, Ligia Noronha, Belinda
Reyers, Ingrid Robeyns, Paul Schreyer,
Amartya Sen, Nicholas Stern, Joseph
E. Stiglitz, Izabella Teixeira and Duncan
Wingham.
We are thankful for especially close
collaborations with our partners at the
World Inequality Lab, including Lucas
Chancel and Tancrède Voituriez, and
with colleagues at the United Nations
Environment Programme, including
Inger Andersen, María José Baptista,
Maxwell Gomera, Pushpam Kumar,
Cornelia Pretorius, Steven Stone and
Merlyn Van Voore, and at the Inter‑
national Science Council, including
Eve El Chehaly, Mathieu Denis, Peter
Gluckman, Heide Hackmann, Binyam
Sisay Mendisu, Dirk Messner, Alison
Meston, Elisa Reis, Asunción Lera St.
Clair, Megha Sud and Zhenya Tsoy,
with whom we partnered to initiate an
ongoing conversation on rethinking
human development. We are grateful
for the opportunity to present to and
receive feedback from the Interna‑
tional Resource Panel and for the close
collaboration with and support from
the Stockholm Resilience Centre at
Stockholm University.
H U M A N D E V E LO P M E N T R E PO RT / 2020
Appreciation is also extended for all
the data, written inputs and peer re‑
views of draft chapters to the Report, in‑
cluding those by Nuzhat Ahmad, Sabina
Alkire, Simon Anholt, Edward Barbier,
Scott Barrett, Kendon Bell, Joaquín Ber‑
nal, Christelle Cazabat, Manqi Chang,
Ajay Chhibber, David Collste, Sarah Cor‑
nell, Bina Desai, Simon Dikau, Andrea S.
Downing, Maria Teresa Miranda Espino‑
sa, David Farrier, Katherine Farrow, John
E. Fernández, Eduardo Flores Mendoza,
Max Franks, William Gbohoui, Arunab‑
ha Ghosh, Oscar Gomez, Nandini
Harihar, Dina Hestad, Solomon Hsiang,
Inge Kaul, Axel Kleidon, Fanni Kosvedi,
Jan. J. Kuiper, Timothy M. Lenton, Wolf‑
gang Lutz, Khalid Malik, Wolf M. Mooij,
Michael Muthukrishna, Karine Nyborg,
Karen O’Brien, Carl Obst, José Antonio
Ocampo, Toby Ord, Ian Parry, Catherine
Pattillo, Jonathan Proctor, Francisco R.
Rodríguez, Valentina Rotondi, Roman
Seidl, Uno Svedin, Jeanette Tseng, Iñaki
Permanyer Ugartemendia, David G. Vic‑
tor, Gaia Vince and Dianneke van Wijk.
A number of virtual consultations
with thematic and regional experts
were held between February and
September 2020, and physical consul‑
tations were held in New York; in the
Republic of Korea, hosted by UNDP’s
Seoul Policy Centre; and in Zimbabwe,
hosted by the United Nations Economic
Commission for Africa. We are grateful
for inputs during these consultations by
Lilibeth Acosta-Michlik, Bina Agarwal,
Sanghoon Ahn, Joseph Aldy, Alessandra
Alfieri, Frans Berkhout, Steve Brumby,
Anthony Cak, Hongmin Chun, Keeyong
Chung, William Clark, Flavio Comin,
Adriana Conconi, Fabio Corsi, Diane
Coyle, Rosie Day, Fiona Dove, Paul Ekins,
Marina Fischer-Kowalski, Enrico Giovan‑
nini, Pamela Green, Peter Haas, Raya
Haffar El Hassan, Mark Halle, Stéphane
Hallegatte, Laurel Hanscom, Gordon
Hanson, Ilpyo Hong, Samantha Hyde,
Sandhya Seshadri Iyer, Nobuko Kajiura,
Thomas Kalinowski, Simrit Kaur, Asim I.
Khwaja, Yeonsoo Kim, Randall Krantz,
Sarah Lattrell, Henry Lee, David Lin,
Ben Metz, James Murombedzi, Connie
Nshemereirwe, John Ouma-Mugabe,
Jihyeon Irene Park, Richard Peiser, Rich‑
ard Poulton, Isabel Guerrero Pulgar,
Steven Ramage, Forest Reinhardt, Kath‑
erine Richardson, Jin Hong Rim, Giovan‑
ni Ruta, Sabyasachi Saha, Saurabh
Sinha, Ingvild Solvang, Yo Whan Son,
Tanja Srebotnjak, Jomo Kwame Sunda‑
ram, Philip Thigo, Charles Vörösmarty,
Mathis Wackernagel, Robert Watson
and Kayla Walsh.
Further support was also extended
by others too numerous to mention
here. Consultations are listed at http://
hdr.undp.org/en/towards-hdr-2020,
with more partners and participants
mentioned at http://hdr.undp.org/en/
acknowledgements-hdr-2020. Contri‑
butions, support and assistance from
partnering institutions, including UNDP
regional bureaus and country offices,
are also acknowledged with much
gratitude.
We are grateful for many colleagues
in the UN family who supported the
preparation of the Report by hosting
consultations or providing comments
and advice. They include Robert
Hamwey, Maria Teresa Da Piedade
Moreira, Henrique Pacini and Shamika
Sirimanne at the United Nations Con‑
ference for Trade and Development;
Astra Bonini, Sara Castro-Hallgren,
Hoi Wai Jackie Cheng and Elliott Harris
at the United Nations Department of
Economic and Social Affairs; Manos
Antoninis, Bilal Barakat, Nicole Bella,
Anna Cristina D’Addio, Camila Lima
De Moraes and Katharine Redman at
the United Nations Educational, Scien‑
tific and Cultural Organization; Shams
Banihani, Hany Besada, Jorge Chediek,
Naveeda Nazir and Xiaojun Grace
Wang at the United Nations Office for
South-South Cooperation; Kunal Sen
at the United Nations University–World
Institute for Development Economics
Research; and many colleagues from
the United Nations Children’s Fund and
the United Nations Entity for Gender
Equality and the Empowerment of
Women.
Colleagues in UNDP provided ad‑
vice and inputs. We are grateful to
Babatunde Abidoye, Marcel Alers,
Jesus Alvarado, Carlos Arboleda, Sade
Bamimore, Betina Barbosa, Malika
Bhandarkar, Bradley Busetto, Michele
Candotti, Sarwat Chowdhury, Joseph
D’Cruz, Abdoulaye Mar Dieye, Simon
Dikau, Mirjana Spoljaric Egger, Jamison
Ervin (who devoted much time to
advise and contribute to the Report),
Bakhodur Eshonov, Ahunna Ezia‑
konwa, Almudena Fernández, Cassie
Flynn, Bertrand Frot, Oscar A. Garcia,
Raymond Gilpin, Balazs Horvath, Vito
Intini, Artemy Izmestiev, Anne Juepner,
Stephan Klingebiel, Raquel Lagu‑
nas, Luis Felipe López-Calva, Marion
Marigo, George Gray Molina, Mansour
Ndiaye, Sydney Neeley, Hye-Jin Park,
Midori Paxton, Clea Paz, Isabel de
Saint Malo de Alvarado, Tim Scott,
Ben Slay, Anca Stoica, Bertrand Tessa,
Anne Virnig, Mourad Wahba and Kanni
Wignaraja.
We were fortunate to have the
support of talented interns—Jadher
Aguad, Cesar Castillo Garcia, Jungjin
Koo and Ajita Singh—and fact check‑
ers—Jeremy Marand, Tobias Schillings
and Emilia Toczydlowska.
The Human Development Report Of‑
fice also extends its sincere gratitude to
AC KN OW L E D G E M E N TS
the governments of Germany, the Re‑
public of Korea, Portugal and Sweden
for their financial contributions. Their
ongoing support is much appreciated
and remains essential.
We are grateful for the highly
professional work of our editors and
layout artists at Communications De‑
velopment Incorporated—led by Bruce
Ross-Larson with Joe Brinley, Joe Ca‑
ponio, Meta de Coquereaumont, Mike
Crumplar, Peter Redvers-Lee, Christo‑
pher Trott and Elaine Wilson. A special
word of gratitude to Bruce, who edited
the very first Report 30 years ago, and
almost all the others since, bringing un‑
paralleled scrutiny and wisdom—and,
not infrequently, encouragement too.
To conclude, we are extremely
grateful to UNDP Administrator Achim
Steiner. His probing intellect and con‑
stant reminder that the Report needs
to speak to people’s concerns pro‑
vided us the guideposts we needed to
develop the arguments in a rigorous
but practical way. He told us that this
Report should matter in the context of
the Covid-19 pandemic and beyond.
That gave us the compass to navigate
the production of the Report in a dis‑
orienting year—we hope to have been
able to meet that aspiration, as we
seek to contribute to advance the next
frontier of human development in the
Anthropocene.
Pedro Conceição
Director
Human Development Report Office
v
Contents
Foreword
iii
C H A PT E R 5
Acknowledgements
iv
Shaping incentives to navigate the future
157
Special contribution—Human development and Mahbub ul Haq
xi
Harnessing finance to incentivize transformation
160
Overview
1
Shifting prices, changing minds
167
Enhancing international and multiactor collective action
173
PA RT I
Renewing human development for the Anthropocene
C H A PT E R 6
15
C H A PT E R 1
Charting human development in the Anthropocene
19
Confronting a new reality: People versus trees?
22
Reimagining the human development journey: Bringing the
planet back in
25
Leveraging the human development approach for
transformation: Beyond needs, beyond sustaining
185
Avoiding biosphere integrity loss, empowering people
187
Towards nature-based human development
195
PA RT I I I
38
221
C H A PT E R 7
Unprecedented—the scope, scale and speed of human
pressures on the planet
45
Looking beneath the environment and sustainability: Human
activity driving dangerous planetary change
47
Enter the Anthropocene
47
Anthropocene risks and human development
56
Planetary change is disempowering
63
C H A PT E R 3
69
Enhancing equity to advance social justice and broaden choices 72
Pursuing innovation to widen opportunities
79
Instilling a sense of stewardship of nature
88
PA RT I I
Acting for change
183
When local becomes global
Measuring human development and the Anthropocene
C H A PT E R 2
Empowering people for equity, innovation and stewardship of
nature
Building nature-based human development
127
C H A PT E R 4
Empowering people, unleashing transformation
131
From theory to change
133
From learning to value formation
134
From values to self‑reinforcing social norms
144
From existential risks to transformation
151
Towards a new generation of human development metrics for
the Anthropocene
225
One index to rule them all?
227
Broadening the vista on the Human Development Index: The
income component and planetary pressures
229
Adjusting the Human Development Index as a whole
233
Notes
268
References
291
B OX E S
1
The Planetary pressures–adjusted Human Development Index:
Signposts to navigate the Anthropocene
13
1.1
Indigenous and local knowledge systems and practices
generate synergies between biodiversity and human wellbeing
34
1.2
A just transition
35
1.3
Choosing inclusive futures for human development in the
Anthropocene
37
1.4
Capabilities in a rapidly changing living planet
42
2.1
The planetary boundaries framework
51
2.2
Complexity in social and natural systems
54
2.3
Natural hazards and displacement
60
3.1
The Amazon’s biodiversity loss and disempowerment
76
3.2
The environmental justice movement
79
3.3
The potential in recycling electronic waste
87
3.4
Human–nonhuman natures: Broadening perspectives
89
S1.3.1
Existential risk as sustainability
110
4.1
How education can save lives
137
C O N T E N TS
vii
4.2
Real world transformation, unleashed by empowered people
149
4.3
What we need to do—learning from locals
150
4.4
Less voice, less power, more suffering
152
4.5
Why polycentric systems work: Insights from social psychology
153
5.1
The Task Force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosure
164
5.2
The Covid-19 pandemic and a green recovery
166
5.3
Impediments to effective carbon pricing mechanisms
170
5.4
Payments for ecosystem services in New York and Tanzania
174
5.5
Trade-related incentives in international treaties—credible
and effective?
176
6.1.
Telecoupling between Indian farmers and rainfall in East Africa
187
6.2
The Sendai Framework
188
6.3
The first reef insurance policy to protect coastal communities
in Mexico
190
6.4.
Using collective financing mechanisms to scale up naturebased water management
192
6.5
Holistic approaches to nature can deliver multiple impacts
203
6.6
Environmental activists are being killed
204
7.1
Would health-adjusted longevity better reflect the impact of
planetary pressures?
230
7.2
Measuring wellbeing
234
F I G U RE S
1
Planetary and social imbalances reinforce each other
2
Changes in the number of extreme temperature days—a
result of climate change—will only worsen inequalities in
human development
4
In countries with high ecological threats, there is also greater
social vulnerability
5
The Covid-19 pandemic’s unprecedented shock to human
development
7
5
Countries with higher human development tend to exert more
pressure over greater scales on the planet
7
6
Twenty nature-based solutions could provide much of the
mitigation needed to restrain global warming
11
3
4
3
2.1
How the Anthropocene would fit in the Geological Time Scale
corresponding to the Quaternary Period
48
2.2
Dating the beginning of the Anthropocene to the mid-20th
century would correspond to the Great Acceleration of human
pressures on the planet that have the potential to leave a
geological imprint
49
2.3
Rates of species extinction are estimated to be hundreds or
thousands of times higher than background rates
52
2.4
The Covid-19 pandemic’s unprecedented shock to human
development
57
2.5
Hunger is on the rise
57
2.6
The effects of natural hazards appear to be increasing
58
2.7
By 2100 the number of days a year with extreme temperatures is
expected to increase more in lower human development countries 59
2.8
Low human development countries have less exposure to sea
level rise in absolute terms but greater relative exposure per
kilometre of coastline
60
2.9
By 2070 temperatures are projected to shift outside the range
of human survivability more over the next 50 years than in
the past 6,000 years—negatively in developing countries and
positively in developed countries
62
2.10
The Covid-19 pandemic has erased decades of progress in the
female labour force participation rate
63
2.11
Countries with higher ecological threats tend to have greater
social vulnerability
64
2.12
Links between equity and empowerment
64
2.13
The asymmetries between women owning land and living off
the land are striking
66
3.1
Equity, innovation and stewardship of nature can break the
vicious cycle of social and planetary imbalances
71
3.2
Two tales of environmental inequality
73
3.3
Growing environmental inequality
74
3.4
Unequal dynamics: Carbon footprint and biocapacity deficit
74
3.5
In vulnerable areas in poorer countries, gaps in infant mortality
are widening
78
3.6
Greater social efficiency of income (moving to the frontier)
can enhance equity and ease planetary pressures
80
3.7
Bitcoin energy use is alarming
82
3.8
The real cost of photovoltaic modules has dropped 89 percent
since 2010
83
7
The adjustment to standard Human Development Index
values by the Planetary pressures–adjusted Human
Development Index widens as human development levels increase12
1.1
Planetary and social imbalances reinforce each other
24
3.9
1.2
Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel combustion have
fallen in several countries
Across the world, national policymaking has taken up the
charge for promoting renewable energy
84
26
3.10
Lithium-ion battery prices fell between 2011 and 2020
84
1.3
Where human development paths landed: High human
development goes with high resource use
3.11
How the circular economy differs from the linear
86
1.4
Under the sustainability scenario, countries converge by
2100—with lower carbon dioxide emissions per capita and
higher human development
3.12
A conceptual framework for local environmental stewardship
90
S1.1.1
The knowledge, social will and political power needed to
achieve sustainable development exists
95
S1.3.1
Three types of existential catastrophe
106
S1.3.2
While there have been substantial reductions in the number
of active stockpiled nuclear warheads, the total number
—especially in the Russian Federation and the United States—
remains high
108
4.1
From learning to self-reinforcing social norms
135
4.2
Social media platforms can contribute to polarization
140
4.3
Most people agree that it is important to protect the planet,
regardless of their country’s level of human development
142
1.5
27
28
Human societies are embedded in the biosphere: Energy and
biophysical resources are used to build stocks and provide
benefits for humans while generating waste and emissions
29
1.6
Energy captured in the biosphere and human society
30
1.7
Diversity in life, culture and language coevolve
33
1.8
Global population is growing, but growth rates are falling
38
1.9
Lower total pollution but persistent inequities in pollution exposure 40
1.10
Reduced economic damages from industrial pollution were
driven by utilities without losing economic value added
viii
40
H U M A N D E V E LO P M E N T R E PO RT / 2020
4.4
Lost opportunity: People would have given part of their
income to protect the planet in the 1990s, regardless of levels
of human development
142
4.5
Fewer people are likely to take concrete actions that reduce
planetary pressures
143
4.6
People expect governments to take action, but there is room
for partnerships
145
4.7
Agency plays out in a social structure and can take two
dimensions
146
4.8
Tipping the balance towards transformation
155
A4.1
Disaggregated data for survey question in figure 4.3
156
5.1
Incentives are required to shift finance towards low-carbon energy 160
5.2
The cost of finance accounts for the largest share of
historically low solar tariffs in India
161
5.3
Financial intermediaries hold an increasing share of savings
on behalf of households in the United States
162
5.4
Most countries have ratified international environmental treaties 175
5.5
Catalytic cooperation with increasing returns
178
6.1
Nature-based solutions and the potential for a virtuous cycle
between people and planet
185
6.2
Twenty nature-based solutions can provide some of the
mitigation needed to restrain global warming
186
6.3
The local and the global are deeply interconnected
186
6.4
The mitigation potential of eight climate change interventions
is widely distributed across countries in different regions and
at different levels of development
196
The decrease in forest area in developing countries presents a
challenge for the mitigation potential offered by nature-based
solutions
197
6.6
Costa Rica’s high-resolution mapping of national naturebased solutions priorities
198
6.7
Biodiversity richness is greatest under indigenous peoples’
management regimes
6.8
The per capita contribution by indigenous peoples preserving
forest storage capacity in the Amazon is roughly equal to per
capita greenhouse gas emissions by the top 1 percent of the
income distribution
201
6.9
Indigenous peoples and local communities move the leverage
points to build global sustainability
201
S5.2.1
Emissions are likely to start rising again in 2021 as economies
recover and some structural shifts are partially reversed
208
S5.2.2
The carbon prices consistent with countries’ mitigation
pledges vary widely
210
S5.2.3
The economic efficiency costs of carbon pricing are more
than offset by domestic environmental benefits
S5.2.4
Carbon pricing can be moderately regressive, distributionneutral or moderately progressive
S5.4.1
In a high greenhouse gas emissions scenario, temperatures
are projected to climb to unprecedented levels throughout the
developing world by the end of the century
219
S5.4.2
Average mortality risk due to climate change in 2100,
accounting for both the costs and the benefits of adaptation
7.1
New dashboard on human development and the Anthropocene
7.2
The changes to Human Development Index values after
subtracting the social costs of carbon at $200 per tonne of
carbon dioxide emissions are generally small
232
7.3
The steady decline in natural capital
235
7.4
Visual representation of the Planetary pressures–adjusted
Human Development Index
236
6.5
7.5
Planetary pressures–adjusted Human Development Index
values are very close to Human Development Index values for
countries with a Human Development Index value of 0.7 or lower 237
7.6
Planetary pressures have increased with gains on the Human
Development Index
238
7.7
Contrasting progress in human development with planetary
pressures
238
7.8
Of the more than 60 very high human development countries
in 2019, only 10 are still classified as very high human
development on the Planetary pressures–adjusted Human
Development Index
239
Human Development Index and Planetary pressures–adjusted
Human Development Index trajectories are coupled in very
high human development countries
239
7.10
The world is moving far too slowly towards advancing human
development while easing planetary pressures
240
S7.2.1
Greenhouse gas emissions
