Description
Summarize and Reaction the readings (1,2,3,4,5)
Summarize the readings (Research Design and Discussion):
1. The foundations of research: chapter 7 (Pages 157 – 189)
2. Your research project: chapter 7 (pages 305 – 408)
3. Bono, J. E., & McNamara, G. (2011). From the Editors_Publishing in AMJ-Part 2: Research Design. Academy of Management Journal, 54(4), 657-660.
4. Zhang, Y., & Shaw, J. D. (2012). Publishing in AMJ—Part 5: Crafting the methods and results. Academy of Management Journal. 8-12.
5. Geletkanycz, M., & Tepper, B. J. (2012). Publishing in AMJ–part 6: Discussing the implications.
***There are two main parts to the summary: ***
1. Summary of each chapter/article: Includes Title of Article, Author(s), Source, and Date of Article using APA style. In your OWN WORDS describe what the article is about, with major details or points, and should be easy to read (i.e. interesting and flow well!) (shows strong evidence of knowledge and understanding of the readings)
2. Reaction: Briefly describe the implications to scholars in academia (so what? in what ways you can utilize the ideas in the readings in your professional development as a scholar).
***Use easy words and easy Sentence***
Unformatted Attachment Preview
The Foundations of Research
1
Research Skills
Authoring a PhD
The Foundations of Research (3rd edn)
Getting to Grips with Doctoral Research Getting Published
The Good Supervisor (2nd edn)
PhD by Published Work
The PhD Viva
Planning Your Postgraduate Research
The Lean PhD
The PhD Writing Handbook
The Postgraduate Research Handbook (2nd edn) The
Professional Doctorate
Structuring Your Research Thesis
Teaching and Learning
Series Editor: Sally Brown
Access to Higher Education
Coaching and Mentoring in Higher Education
Facilitating Work-Based Learning
Facilitating Workshops
For the Love of Learning
Fostering Self-Efficacy in Higher Education Students
Internationalization and Diversity in Higher Education
Leading Dynamic Seminars
Learning, Teaching and Assessment in Higher Education
Learning with the Labyrinth
Live Online Learning
Masters Level Teaching, Learning and Assessment
Reimagining Spaces for Learning in Higher Education
Successful University Teaching in Times of Diversity
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The Foundations of Research
Third Edition
Jonathan Grix
3
© Jonathan Grix, under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Limited 2004,
2010, 2019
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication
may be made without written permission.
No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save
with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting
limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10
Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may
be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First edition 2004
Second edition 2010
This edition published 2019 by
RED GLOBE PRESS
Red Globe Press in the UK is an imprint of Springer Nature Limited, registered
in England, company number 785998, of 4 Crinan Street, London N1 9XW.
Red Globe Press® is a registered trademark in the United States, the United
Kingdom, Europe and other countries.
ISBN 978–1–352–00200–3 paperback
This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully
managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing
processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the
country of origin.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
4
For Hannah
5
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Preface
Introduction
The structure of the book
1 The Nature of Research
The ‘language’ of research
The nature of research
The nature of the doctoral process
Why do a PhD?
The right place to study
Matters of time
Familiarise yourself
Summary
Further reading
2 The ‘Nuts and Bolts’ of Research
The tools of research
Key terms in research
Summary
Essential reading
Further reading
3 Getting Started in Research
Getting started
Levels of analysis and types of research
Types of study
Summary
Essential reading
Further reading
4 The Building Blocks of Research
Ontology
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Epistemology
Differing ontological and epistemological views
The directional relationship between ontology, epistemology,
methodology, methods and sources
The ‘social capital’ debate
Summary
Essential reading
5 Introducing the Key Research Paradigms
Research paradigms
Key perspectives in research
Summary: Disciplines, perspectives, discourses and
interdisciplinarity
Interdisciplinarity or ‘post-disciplinarity’
Summary
Essential reading
Further reading
6 The Types and Uses of Theory in Research
Introducing theory
The traditional view of theory
The role of theory in social research
Research paradigms and the role of theory
Different uses of theory
Inductive and deductive theory and research
Summary
Essential reading
Further reading
7 Introducing Research Methods
Quantitative research
Qualitative research
The quantitative–qualitative dichotomy: A false antithesis
Methods
Interview technique
Structured interviews
Triangulation, mixing methods and data, research design and
skills Summary
Essential reading
Further reading
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8 Academic Standards, Plagiarism and Ethics in Research
Why worry about academic standards, plagiarism and ethics?
Ethics in research
Continuum of ethics in research
Summary
Essential reading
Further reading
Conclusion: Summary of Key Points
Appendix 1 Stages of the Research Process
The stages of doctoral research
Stage I
Stage II
Stage III
Appendix 2 Glossary of Research Terms
Bibliography
Index
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List of Figures
2.1
3.1
3.2
4.1
4.2
5.1
6.1
8.1
A.1
Key tools used in research
Connection between elite sport and mass participation
Relationship between UK elite sport and participation
Continuum of key epistemological positions in human and
social sciences
The interrelationship between the building blocks of research
The key research paradigms
Different uses of theory in social research
Continuum of ethics in research
Steps of the research process
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List of Tables
4.1
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
7.1
8.1
Alternative approaches to social capital research
Key disciplinary perspectives
Economics: neo-classical economics
Politics: rational choice theory (RCT)
International relations: realism
Sociology: functionalism
History: empiricism
The so-called quantitative–qualitative dichotomy
Referencing: The ‘Harvard’ and ‘Humanities’ methods of
referencing
A.1 Possible stages of the doctoral process
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Preface to the 3rd edition
Revisiting an old text after many years is like meeting up with an
old friend after years and picking up where you left off – providing
you liked them in the first place. It is a great pleasure to be asked
to produce a 3rd edition of The Foundations of Research and
once again I have been persuaded by the positive feedback of
those people who use or have used the text.
If things in academia in the UK had changed in the six years
between the original text (2004) and the second edition (2010),
the landscape eight years on is unrecognisable. The introduction
of tuition fees for Higher Education has had a profound impact on
the nature of academic pursuit, the environment in which
academics work and their relationship with those to whom they
seek to impart their wisdom, the students. Some of the impacts
are the inexorable rise of the ‘manager-academic’, the inevitable
shift from student to consumer and the introduction of business
principles into every corner of academic life. The result is a
gradual erosion of creativity, less quality time with students and
the commercialisation of a public good, education. Going over this
text reminded me of an era in which time was available to think.
Re-engaging with this text is a good way of reminding myself of
why I signed up to academia in the first place.
Changes from the 2nd to this 3rd edition revolve in great part
around advances in technology and the shift to online resources
and materials; thus, references to ‘CDs’ have inevitably given way
to advice on where to find quality academic material on the
internet. Chapter 7, for example, sees the inclusion of both online
surveys and a relatively new method of research, ‘Q’
methodology, which is unusual in that it uses quantitative research
to study people’s subjective understanding – this, too, can be
distributed to participants via a web-based link. Apart from
stripping out the old and adding in the new, I have also updated
references wherever possible or relevant – it is not relevant to
seek an update of Max Weber’s notion of the ideal type, for
example, unless new research has uncovered something we did
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not know. I have also peppered the book with some fresh
examples to attempt to bring to light specific points I wish to make.
As before, the present book is based upon the simple notion of
the need for students and scholars to understand the tools and
terminology of research before they begin actual research.
Advanced undergraduates, postgraduates and researchers all
need to familiarise themselves with the language of research, in
order to understand and to produce clear academic work
themselves. It is to these groups that this book is addressed. For
first-time researchers (undertaking an undergraduate or Master’s
dissertation), the book offers a guide to the basic scaffolding of
research tools and terms; for the doctoral student and researcher,
it provides a reference for particular areas of a study (for example,
ontological and epistemological issues); and for all groups, it
functions as an accompaniment to courses in research methods
and methodology.
Many of the ideas in this book have their humble origins from a
pub discussion with Charlie Jeffery over two decades ago. Charlie
was not only my doctoral supervisor in the mid-1990s, but was
also of great help to me during our time together at the Institute for
German Studies at the University of Birmingham.
Between 2013 and 2017, my intellectual home was in the
School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences at the
University of Birmingham, working with Paul Brannagan and Ceri
Wynne. I must say that this was one of the most enjoyable periods
of my academic career hitherto despite the wider developments
touched on above. As a small team, we not only achieved an
awful lot, but we had a good laugh in the process. I have since
moved on to Manchester Metropolitan University to lead a team of
sports-related scholars there. The support myself and my team
have received from our Head of Department, Donna Lee, and our
Dean, Julia Clarke, has made this an especially enjoyable
transition.
I would like to thank Suzannah Burywood for her support of this
and other projects and Helen Caunce for being persistent. This
persistence has resulted in a better book.
On the subject of re-acquaintance, I am very grateful to Bernie
Coughlin, my best mate at school, for seeking me out 30 years
after I last saw him and imparting his view of the world. He is, and
always was, original. I would also like to repeat the thanks I gave
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to Louis, Hannah and Andrea in the 1st and 2nd editions of this
text for their ongoing and unwavering support. This time I have to
include Alfie Dog, a characterful canine companion to our family.
This edition of the book is dedicated to Hannah, who despite – or,
indeed, in part because of – a couple of real challenges in life has
developed into a splendid character.
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Introduction
The purpose of this volume is to introduce and discuss the
foundations of research. The main aim is to equip students with
some of the most important tools and terminology of research as
well as with an understanding of these terms. If you command the
basic vocabulary of generic research, you are far more likely to
choose the correct theories, concepts or methods to use in your
work. By grasping the core tools used in research, much of the
mystery that can surround it begins to disappear.
Moreover, knowledge of the ‘nuts and bolts’ that make up social
research can go a long way to ensuring that the tools of research
are used properly. If you have the right equipment and you know
how to employ it, the research process becomes a great deal
easier and quicker. In the following chapters, then, I am interested
in clarifying the terms and terminology associated with research –
that is, any research, whatever discipline within the human
sciences – and to offer an introductory, and, hopefully, thoughtprovoking discussion on some of the key issues in research. The
text is thus generic and non-disciplinary; that is, it takes a step
back from disciplines and their assumptions and presents the
tools common to most social research.
My target audience is advanced undergraduates and those
undertaking postgraduate taught and research degrees. I am
primarily interested in the social sciences and those parts of the
humanities, especially history, that deal with social phenomena.
Instead of repeating that mouthful throughout the book, I shall opt
for the shorthand ‘human sciences’ whenever I wish to refer to the
area this volume is intended to cover. The issues dealt with in this
book, though, are important for a wide range of academic
disciplines and not, as is mistakenly believed, just for political
scientists and sociologists. All students and scholars in the human
sciences – this ranges from cultural studies, through history and
economics to social psychology and international relations – need
to know, be clear about and reflect upon the foundations of
research.
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The following chapters are not only about defining the key
terminology of the foundations of research, but they also address
some of the most fundamental issues concerning research in the
human sciences. These include the so-called ‘dichotomies’ of
quantitative vs. qualitative research strategies, the structure–
agency
problem and inductive vs. deductive research strategies. As will
become apparent, I believe that these dichotomies have their use
in discerning between specific aspects in research, but I also
believe they should be seen as complementary and not opposing
entities. A few quick examples will suffice at this stage.
Given the temporal constraints of most research, and the fact
that a researcher needs some sort of guide to her pursuit of
knowledge, some form of preconceived idea, notion or hunch is
essential to begin the research process (this is the basis of the
‘induction–deduction’ dichotomy, see Chapter 6). Indeed, without
it there is nothing to animate a research question or design, or to
motivate research in the first place. Even strong supporters of
research that generates theory will have gone into the field with
some preconceived ideas of what they were looking for. Equally,
as will become apparent, the ‘quantitative–qualitative’ divide
among researchers, who disagree about the role of theory in
research and, above all, about ‘the sequence and relationship of
activities involved’ (Robson and McCartan, 2016: 45) in the
process, is rarely reflected in real-life research projects (see
Chapter 7).
Throughout the following chapters, I take you through the most
important foundations of the research process and clarify many of
the concepts used in the human sciences. I approach the process
of uncovering the foundations of research from a generic angle,
rather than from any specific discipline within the human sciences.
The building blocks of research are similar for all disciplines with
this focus. It is the order and level of importance given to the core
components of research, and the philosophical assumptions that
underlie them, that distinguish one discipline’s methodological
approach from another.
Finally, the book is designed to be both a reference text and a
logically constructed book, with chapters building on previous
chapters. There is a full glossary in Appendix 2 which can be
referred to and an index to locate areas of interest. Indeed, it may
15
be a good first step to look through the glossary to familiarise
yourself with some of the terms and ideas there.
The structure of the book
The book is divided into nine chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the
nature of research. First, I touch on the language used in research
and why it is necessary to understand it. Then I turn to the nature
of and difference between BA/BSc, MA and PhD research,
allowing a little extra space for the latter, as the PhD does differ
from a first degree and MA in many ways. The rest of the chapter
offers advice on thinking about where to study, as it is very
important to find a good match between what you want to study
and the facilities and resources of the place where you wish to
study. Further, I discuss how to manage your time, a crucial
element of any successful research strategy and the need to
familiarise yourself with and prepare yourself for the task ahead. It
is surprising how many students launch themselves into their
dissertation or thesis without being fully aware of what is expected
of them.
An introduction to, and discussion of, the all-important tools and
terminology which make up the ‘nuts and bolts’ of research, and
by which research is conducted, form the main subject of the
second section in Chapter 2. The aim is to demystify the
terminology and to reveal the core theoretical and analytical
questions that must be addressed in any piece of research. As I
have already suggested, it is only with a clear understanding of
the terminology employed in research and the underlying issues
this terminology reflects that you can begin to plan your project.
You are advised to reflect not only on the variety of meanings of a
specific concept, but on its origins. Chapter 2 also briefly
discusses and clarifies key concepts and terms in research, such
as typologies, ideal types, paradigms, methods and methodology.
The important concept of ‘theory’ is dealt with at length separately
(Chapter 6). The idea here, as elsewhere in this text, is not to
replace a comprehensive course in research methods, but rather
to put you in a position to understand and even enjoy a methods
course and to be more reflexive in your own studies. You will also
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be in a position to identify the essential parts of the research
process most relevant to your project.
This prepares the way for Chapter 3, ‘Getting Started in
Research’, which turns its attention to the mechanics of research
and the foundations of the research process. As focusing your
topic early is very important, this chapter concentrates on:
developing research questions or hypotheses with which to guide your
research;
the process of defining and refining a research question or hypothesis;
the relationship between the research question or hypothesis and the
methods and sources to be employed in your work.
The necessity of arriving at a set of research questions or
hypotheses cannot be overstated, for without specific questions
you will not be able to organise your project. This is not to imply
that research questions cannot be generated from fieldwork (the
inductive method). However, on a pragmatic level, few students
have the time or funds to gather sufficient quantities of data with
the intention of finding relevant questions or observing specific
phenomena, especially given the limited time they have to finish
their projects.
Chapter 3 also introduces the notion of a continuum of literature
reviews, ranging from the most common starting point of research
(i.e. familiarising yourself with a topic) to speed reading texts after
fieldwork and data analysis. The latter sections of the chapter are
given over to a brief discussion of the level of analysis you choose
in your project. This leads on to one of the most important themes
in the human sciences, the structure and agency problem. After a
summary of what is usually understood by these two concepts, I
outline the two most common ‘types’ of research that are on offer:
case study and comparative.
Chapter 4 offers a discussion of the building blocks in the
foundations of research: ontology and epistemology. A lot of
mystery surrounds these concepts and it is my intention to present
you with an accessible introduction to understanding what these
concepts mean, why they are essential to our research and how
they relate to other key building blocks of research. This I do by
presenting the thesis of a directional relationship between
ontology, epistemology, methodology, methods and even sources.
The purpose of this complicated-sounding exercise is quite
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simple: to show how a person’s starting point in research (their
ontological position) has major implication for (1) what they
believe we can and should research; and (2) how we can go
about researching it. By doing so, this chapter throws light on the
influence traditions of research have on the entire research
process. By bringing clarity to the foundations of research, we
place ourselves in a position of knowledge, one from which it is
possible to adjudicate between the myriad of approaches to social
phenomena on offer. Without such clarity and knowledge of the
basics, we run the risk of simply arguing past each other.
Chapter 5 builds on Chapter 4 by offering an overview of the
key traditions in social research and examples of the main
perspectives in economics, political science, international
relations, sociology and historical studies respectively. Although
there are a great number of books dealing with the key research
paradigms on the market, many of which go into minute detail, I
think it is a good idea to present at least the contours of the key
traditions of positivism, (critical) realism and interpretivism.
Additionally, I shall briefly introduce post-modernism and
feminism, which do not share the long history of the other
conventional traditions, but nonetheless need to be discussed, as
the challenges they pose to research thinking are to be taken
seriously.
The second section of Chapter 5 offers a brief description of the
disciplinary perspectives that fall under the broad umbrella of
‘positivism’ by presenting their aims, key assumptions, key
themes, key concepts, limitations, chief advocates and seminal
works. Such a wide overview will arm you further with most of the
terms and terminology you are likely to encounter in your studies,
thereby enabling you to understand the language of research. In
addition, and of equal importance, I shall align these perspectives
according to their research paradigm (positivism, interpretivism,
etc.), in order to show the similarities/dissimilarities among certain
perspectives. Although this method of grouping and categorising
academic perspectives may be seen as crude – given that it is
difficult, and not necessarily desirable, to shoehorn perspectives
into certain categories – it nonetheless offers an overview of an
often impenetrable and overwhelming area of study. It will also, I
hope, encourage you to think beyond narrow disciplinary
boundaries.
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There is perhaps no more confusing concept in research than
that of theory. For this reason, Chapter 6 is given over to
discussing theory and its role in research. Unlike many of the
concepts introduced in Chapter 2, ‘theory’ is unable to be fixed in
meaning and thus avoids a simple, single definition. What we can
do, however, is discuss in detail why it has come to mean what it
has – a ‘testable’ proposition, a hypothetical statement against
which ‘reality’ is tested in the field – with reference to the influence
of positivism and positivist research. Once we understand that this
is simply one way of conceiving of theory, we are ready to discuss
others. This is done with reference to the traditions of research
above, and how they conceive of theory, and to the many different
types of theory available in research.
Chapter 7 is built around the ‘quantitative–qualitative’
dichotomy. Here I discuss some examples of methods commonly
used to collect and analyse empirical data, including interviews,
participant observation, documentary analysis and media
analysis. The purpose of the methods section is not to offer a
comprehensive account of types of procedures for data collection
and analysis, but rather to introduce a series of methods with
which to collect and generate data and to indicate how the choice
of which ones to use in a study is governed by a certain logic
contained in the methodology employed or the rationale of the
research.
In addition to an overview of some of the most frequently used
methods in the human sciences, I turn my attention to the notion
of ‘mixing methods’ and ‘triangulation of methods’ in research.
Both of these notions are not without problems and need to be
thought about carefully. Equally, I discuss both research design
and research skills – two topics on which an increasing number of
texts are being produced.
Chapter 8 highlights two important aspects of research for
students to be aware of: the danger of accidental plagiarism by
improper referencing and poor note-taking, and the sensitive topic
of ethics. While ethics has always been important in research,
plagiarism has become increasingly so, especially as the internet
now offers an unquantifiable amount of easily accessible
information to download. In this section I also discuss what
constitutes proper referencing and how to avoid being accused of
cheating.
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Ethics play a major part in any empirical research undertaken,
especially when involving people. Even storing data is an ethical
issue and should follow certain protocols. After an initial
discussion of the roots of ethics in social research, I give
examples for you to think through. I also present a continuum
along which I place certain types of research: for example, covert
undercover reporting, ‘borrowing’ documents, interviews and
‘deception’ research (i.e. dressing up and posing as a policeman).
At this point we are close to the nitty-gritty of research: your
awareness of professional academic standards and how they
impinge upon your research project.
Finally, Chapter 9 contains the conclusion, which sums up the
important messages that I hope you will take away from reading
this book.
Appendix 1 offers you a discussion on the possible sequencing
of research stages, an idea that simplifies and facilitates the
research process. Here I set out a guidelines to the process of
research that can be adapted and adjusted to suit individual
needs and circumstances. As I shall show, it is important for
students to imagine the direction their research will take at a very
early stage. Breaking the research process up into manageable
and comprehensible stages is all part of a successful research
strategy, so long as you retain a sense of the whole project.
Students will see that there is an inherent logic, albeit not always
the same in each case, to the research process and that the
stages presented impact greatly on one another and are
interlinked. I shall also touch on ‘managing’ the research process,
including the perennial mistake of not allowing enough time for the
completion of data collection.
Appendix 2, on the other hand, consists of a glossary of some
of the key terms used and often misunderstood in research. All of
the terms in bold in the main text can be found in the glossary.
The glossary can be used as a reference guide while reading this
and other texts, but will remain a useful companion throughout the
course of research. The choice of terms has been driven by their
importance for research in the human sciences, with a focus on
the building blocks essential to most research. Finally, I offer some
examples of proper referencing techniques most commonly used
in the human sciences.
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Throughout the book my emphasis, then, is on clarity and
practicality – on how understanding the foundations of research
leads to better and clearer research.
21
1
The Nature of Research
This chapter introduces:
The ‘language’ of research
The nature of research
The idea of preparing yourself by considering where to study, time
management and by familiarising yourself with the task ahead
The aim of this first chapter is to begin to familiarise you with the
nature, tools and terminology of the research process. Central to
my aims is the ‘demystification’ of research, be it a BSc or BA
dissertation, an MSc, MA, MPhil, PhD or DPhil. The emphasis is
on the foundations of research and many of the terms and much
of the process will be applicable to all sustained research in the
human sciences. The following advice will also be of interest to
researchers who have to write lengthy dissertations or structured
research reports. From time to time it will be necessary to address
specific points relating to a higher degree, that is, the PhD, as
these are not relevant to advanced undergraduates or all
postgraduate work. The majority of the points made, however, are
fundamental to all research. This chapter also touches on the
differences between undergraduate, postgraduate and especially
PhD research.
First, I discuss the language of research; that is, the manner in
which it is presented and why it is important to learn the generic
terms of research in order to dispel the mystery surrounding the isms and -ologies that pepper research papers, research methods
books and courses. I then turn to the nature of research,
distinguishing between undergraduate dissertations, MAs and
PhDs. PhDs are given a special section, because they differ in so
many ways from the other two. The final three sections touch on
where to study, time management and familiarising yourself with
22
the task ahead. All these factors are relevant to what I am
concerned with here: the foundations of research. The choice of
where to study is most relevant for postgraduates, but also for
those undergraduates wishing to continue their studies. Time
management is a research skill and is essential for both
undergraduates and postgraduates. Finally, we turn to the most
obvious, yet underused idea of simply looking at what it is you are
supposed to be producing. Before we can embellish our work with
wonderful, sophisticated and insightful statements, we need to
know the mechanics of research: for example what does a
dissertation or thesis look like?
The ‘language’ of research
While we all know the old cliché ‘knowledge is power’, it is worth
reflecting on the ways in which knowledge is discussed, disputed
and disseminated. In the human sciences there are a number of
different ‘discourses’ between disciplines, for example economics,
history and cultural studies. Common to most discourses is the
basic language of research. Given the variety of uses of the terms
and terminology of human science research, it is hardly surprising
that students rarely have a firm grasp of the tools of their trade.
Different academics in different disciplines attach a wide range of
meanings and interpretations to the terminology of research. One
person’s ‘theory’ is another’s ‘taxonomy’, while another
researcher’s ‘ideal type’ is another’s ‘theory’, and so on. With little
or no knowledge of the standard reference points in general
research, you are likely to produce a dissertation or thesis which
is unclear and imprecise; learning the rules of the game simplifies
the process, makes it transparent and takes away the fear
associated with the unknown. It is my contention that in order to
be able to work within the parameters of the human sciences, you
need to be very clear about what the tools and terminology of
research are and what they mean before you can begin
researching. If you spend a little time learning the language of
research, discovering what the terms and concepts mean and
how they can be employed, the mystery associated with much of
academic work, especially at the postgraduate level, will begin to
disappear.
23
This may sound trivial, but given the fact that many students –
and seasoned academics, too, for that matter – have difficulty
differentiating between crucial terms such as ‘ontology’ (what is
out there to know about) and ‘epistemology’ (what and how can
we know about it), their subsequent research is bound to suffer,
as knowledge of these two key terms and their place in research
is essential to understanding the research process as a whole.
These particular terms (ontology and epistemology) are often
shrouded in ambiguity, partly created by the language in which
they are explained, leaving the reader more confused than she
was before she began reading. There is an obvious and urgent
need for agreement on the meaning of specific generic terms
across the disciplines in the human sciences to prevent the
confusion which surrounds many concepts at present. Suffice it to
say that this should not be understood as a call for unity of
methodological approaches, as diversity is essential for the
vibrancy of the human sciences, but rather a call for clarity on key
terms that can cross disciplines.
What other reasons are there for needing to know and
understand standard terms and concepts in social research? A
simple example will do: consider a would-be bricklayer who does
not know the difference between a trowel, a spirit level and a
chisel. These are the basic tools of his trade, without which no
wall can be built. Each tool has a specific purpose and, if it were
used wrongly (or in the wrong order), for example taking a chisel
to lay bricks, the results would be disastrous. In research, specific
tools have specific purposes and, if one is to employ them
correctly, one must first understand what they mean, what they
are meant to do and how and when to use them. The lack of
clarity and constancy of the social-research lex
