Research in Social Psychology

Description

1) How is knowledge about people’s social experiences generated?2) Describe the research cycle within sociological social psychology, emphasizing how the interplay between quantitative and qualitative research contributes to the creation of knowledge about human social behavior.

Unformatted Attachment Preview

© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Research Methods in Sociological Social
Psychology
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Chapter 2
Research Methods in
Sociological Social Psychology
Social Psychological studies almost always involve the
collection and analysis of data.
The face of social psychology a researcher is working
within is related to the research methods used.
• It directs the researcher to focus on specific aspects of a topic and
shapes the questions asked.
• The type of question asked affects the method of data collection
used.
• The goal is to select a method that is best suited for answering the question
under investigation.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
• Understanding the research process gives you the tools needed to
understand studies and to evaluate the claims that are made about
society and behavior.
Social Psychologists working within the SSP or the
GPS face of social psychology are interested in
how people’s status characteristics (e.g.,
race/ethnicity, gender, and class) affect specific
outcomes.
• This type of question is best answered using quantitative
research methods.
• Quantitative research involves the analysis of numerical
data and focuses on identifying cause and effect
relationships between variables.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Research Methods in
Sociological Social Psychology
Research Methods in
Sociological Social Psychology
• These types of questions are best addressed through
qualitative research methods.
• Qualitative research involves the observation and
analysis of people’s everyday interactions in natural
settings or the analysis of detailed personal accounts of
their social experiences.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Social Psychologists working within the SI (Chicago
School) face are interested in how meanings are
constructed through interaction and the unique
experiences of members of specific groups.
The Research Process: Quantitative Methods
Social psychologists test theories about how the world
works.
Quantitative research follows the deductive research
process, which involves reasoning from the general
(theory) to the specific (observations or data).
• Researchers start with a theory, collect the data needed to test the
theory, and examine the results of this observation.
• If the results of the study are consistent with the theory, the theory
has been supported. If the results are inconsistent, the theory is
called into question.
• Theories can be modified or rejected as a result of this process.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
• A theory is a set of cause and effect statements that can be tested
with data.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Hypotheses and Variables
In order to test a theory, social psychologists formulate one
or more hypotheses.
• A variable is something with attributes that vary across what is
being studied (e.g., gender, income).
• Hypotheses are typically causal. The variation in one variable is
presumed to be the cause of the variation in another.
• The independent variable is the cause.
• The dependent variable is the effect or outcome.
Example Hypothesis: As income (independent variable)
increases, happiness (dependent variable) increases.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
A hypothesis is a statement about the specific relationship
between variables that one expects to see if the theory is
correct.
Operationalization and Measurement
• An operational definition refers to the precise method
that will be used to measure (quantify) a variable.
• Variables may be measured with a single item or with a
set of items, as in an index.
• In an index, the responses to each item (in the set) are typically
added up to create an overall score on the variable of interest.
• An index is often used to measure a variable that is complex
and/or multidimensional.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Operationalization refers to specifying how a variable
will be measured in a particular study.
Main Methods of Data Collection in
Quantitative Research
• Surveys can be given face-to-face, through the mail or
e-mail, on-line or over the telephone.
• Surveys are the most common method used by SSP
researchers.
• Secondary Data Analyses are studies based on data
collected by someone else.
• Surveys conducted by others are often made available to
other researchers to use. SSP researchers often conduct
secondary data analyses.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Surveys are a method of data collection which
measure variables by asking respondents a
structured set of questions in a predetermined
order.
Main Methods of Data Collection in
Quantitative Research
• the researcher randomly assigns subjects to different
groups,
• exposes the groups to different levels of the independent
variable, and
• then compares scores on the dependent variable across
the groups.
Experiments are often used by GPS researchers.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Experiments are a method of data collection in
which
Population Versus Sample
A sample refers to the subset of the population that the
researcher collects data from.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
A population refers to all of the individuals in a category or
group of interest to the researcher (e.g., all U.S. residents,
students at a specific school).
Representative Sampling and Generalizability
• Using a random sampling procedure helps ensure a representative
sample.
• Since people who respond to a survey are typically different than
those who do not, low response rates affect whether a sample is
representative.
• The results from a representative sample can be generalized to the
population from which it is drawn.
A biased sample is one that does not reflect the population of
interest.
• Use of nonprobability sampling procedures (e.g., selecting individuals
because they are convenient) results in a biased sample.
• The results from a biased sample are not generalizable beyond the
sample.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
A representative sample is a sample that looks like the
population of interest. It contains individuals from all of the
various groups within the population from which it is drawn.
The Experimental Design
• There are two or more groups.
• Random assignment is used to assign subjects to the groups.
• The researcher manipulates the independent variable and then
measures the dependent variable.
• Subjects are usually unware of the purpose of the study
as this information might affect how they behave. At the
end, they are debriefed and told the real purpose of the
experiment.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Experiments are a method of data collection designed to
help the researcher determine if the independent variable
causes the dependent variable (i.e., they are used to test
hypotheses).
• Key Characteristics of Experiments
Laboratory Experiments vs. Field
Experiments
Laboratory experiments are conducted in a
laboratory setting and provide the researcher with
the greatest amount of control over the conditions
the subjects experience.
Field experiments are conducted outside the
laboratory. The researcher has less control over
the process.
• A less artificial environment.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
• An artificial environment.
Three Main Criteria for Evaluating
Quantitative Studies
Validity refers to the accuracy of the study findings.
Generalizability refers to the extent to which the study’s
findings can be applied beyond the individuals who
participated in the study.
•
For a study’s findings to be generalizable, the sample must be
representative of the population of interest.
Reliability refers to the degree to which other researchers
can replicate (duplicate) the study’s findings.
• Reliability is typically high when there is consistency in measurement and
interpretation across studies on a topic.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
• Internal validity refers to the establishment of causal relationships. A study
is high in internal validity if it is clear that the independent variable caused
the dependent variable.
• External validity refers to the degree to which the study results are
generalizable to other individuals in other settings.
Establishing Causality (Internal Validity)
There are three criteria that must be met before claiming
there is a causal relationship between two variables.
Correlation: A correlation exists when an increase in scores on the
independent variable is associated with either an increase or decrease
in scores on the dependent variable (there is a pattern in the data).
Time order: The variation in the independent variable must precede
the variation in the dependent variable in time.
Non-spuriousness: The variation in the dependent variable is due to
the variation in the independent variable and not the variation in
some other variable.
•
A spurious relationship exists when the observed variation in both the independent
and dependent variable is caused by a third variable.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
• A positive relationship exists when both variables increase together.
• A negative relationship exists when one variable increases and the other decreases.
Experiments and Internal Validity
Correlation: Establishing whether the independent variable is
correlated with the dependent variable using standard statistical
techniques is straightforward and rarely a problem.
Non-spuriousness: The random assignment of subjects to the groups
controls for potential sources of spuriousness by equally distributing
them across groups. Each group should be equal on everything except
the independent variable at the beginning of the experiments.
• Control in the experimental process helps ensure that the two groups experience
the same conditions after the random assignment.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Time Order: Establishing time order is rarely a problem. The
researcher manipulates the independent variable and then measures
(observes) the dependent variable. Time is built into the design.
Surveys and Internal Validity
Correlation: Establishing correlation using standard statistical
techniques is rarely a problem.
• Cross-sectional data is collected at one point in time making it difficult to determine
which variable varied first. Longitudinal data is collected from the same respondents
at two points in time. This makes it possible to determine the time-ordering of
variables.
• Sometimes the variables themselves make the direction of the relationship clear in a
cross sectional analysis. This is the case when the independent variable is something
that can’t be caused by the dependent variable (e.g., gender can cause happiness, but
happiness can’t cause gender).
Non-spuriousness: It is difficult to completely rule out the possibility
that the observed relationship is spurious.
• If the relationship between the independent and dependent variable disappears
when controlling for a third variable (holding it constant), then it is a spurious
relationship.
• Survey researchers typically control for as many potential sources of spuriousness as
possible.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Time Order: Establishing time-order is sometimes an issue.
Generalizability and Reliability and
Surveys and Experiments
• Subjects of experiments tend to be convenience samples of college
students, and thus, not representative of a larger population.
• Laboratory settings may yield patterns of behavior different from those
that occur in everyday life.
Reliability
• Reliability is not typically considered to be problematic when data is
gathered using a survey or an experiment.
• Sound measures of variables and an appropriate sample for the topic
under investigation are required for a study’s results to be reliable.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Generalizability
• Surveys: If the sample is representative of the population of
interest, then the findings are generalizable.
• Experiments: Generalizability is a potential weakness.
The Research Process: Qualitative
Methods
• Rather than testing pre-existing theories about the way
society works, qualitative researchers develop theories to
explain the observations they make (Grounded Theory).
• The main goal is to achieve methodological empathy—to see
the world through the eyes of the participants.
• Qualitative researchers provide detailed accounts of how the
participants interpret relationships, situations and events.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Qualitative research follows the inductive
research process which involves reasoning from
the specific (observations/data) to the general
(theory).
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Main Data Collection Methods in
Qualitative Research
• In covert participant observational studies the subjects do not
know their behaviors are being observed and analyzed.
• In overt participant observational studies the researcher identifies
him or herself as a researcher to the subjects.
In-depth (or intensive) Interviews include informal
(probing) and/or formal (explicit) and semi-structured
interviews of those being studied.
• It can be a stand-alone method of data collection, but is often also
used in combination with participant observation.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Participant Observation involves interacting with the
individuals under study and observing their behaviors in
their natural environment.
Sampling in Qualitative Studies
In snowball sampling the research goes into the field
and establishes a relationship with one or more key
informants who introduce them to the people they
know, who introduce them to others, and so forth.
• this strategy is typically used when it is difficult to gain access
to a group or when it is difficult to identify members of a
particular group.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Given the depth of their analyses, qualitative studies
tend to be based on relatively small samples, with
participants chosen through either convenience or
snowball sampling techniques.
Evaluating Qualitative Studies
Strengths of Qualitative Studies
• These analyses are so highly detailed that it is likely that the
researcher has captured all relevant aspects of the
experiences of the participants.
• Note: Internal validity is not relevant here, as the goal is not
to determine cause and effect relationships between
variables.
Qualitative studies are broader in scope than quantitative
studies and allow researchers to understand individuals’
subjective experience and their social relationships.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
The main strength is their validity.
Evaluating Qualitative Studies
Potential Limitations of Qualitative Methods
Reliability can be problematic since the replication of
results can be difficult.
• Another researcher with a different sample may obtain different
results.
• Entering into the minds of the subjects and providing accounts of
the meanings they give to their experiences requires subjective
interpretation by the researcher.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Generalizability is typically a problem because researchers
interact with and/or interview only select individuals who
may not be representative of a larger population.
Other Research Methods Used in
Social Psychology
• Archival research involves analyzing data compiled by the
government and other organizations and institutions.
• Content analysis involves the systematic analysis of the content of
some form of communication, such as newspaper articles, stories or
advertisements in magazines, books, television shows, movies, and
posts on Twitter or Instagram.
Both archival research and content analysis can be
quantitative or qualitative in orientation and either
method can be theory testing or theory generating in
focus.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Available data is data that was produced by someone else
that that might be relevant and available to use for a
researchers study.
Other Research Methods Used in
Social Psychology
• Summarizes the entire literature, rather than the results,
of a single study.
• Helps determine whether a relationship exists between
two variables, and if one does exist, how strong the
relationship is.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Meta-analysis is a method used to assess the
direction and magnitude of results across a
multitude of studies on a specific subject (typically
published research on the topic of interest).
Using Multiple Methods
Combining knowledge from research within each face
allows for the greatest insight into the nature of social
behavior.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Since each method of data collection has strengths and
weaknesses, social psychologists sometimes use multiple
methods to validate research findings (triangulation).
The Research Cycle
Research in social psychology is reciprocal, or cyclical, in nature—a
continuous process through which knowledge is generated.
Researchers may begin at either of two points in the research cycle.
• They may start with an already-established theory as in the case of SSP or
GPS researchers.
• They may start with the collection of data, as in the case of qualitative
researchers in SI.
It is through the research cycle, in which theories are developed,
tested, and modified, that knowledge within sociological social
psychology is generated.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
• Quantitative research tests theories using the deductive model. The
inductive model is used to modify theories that have been tested and not
supported.
• Qualitative research, using the inductive model, creates new theories.
These theories may then be tested in future studies.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Three Studies: Ethical Concerns
• Milgram’s Obedience Study: During this experiment designed to
study obedience to authority, many subjects experienced high levels
of stress and left the lab knowing that they had the capacity to harm
someone just because someone with authority told them to do so.
• Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment: This experiment had to be
ended early because the guards’ behavior got out of hand. They
used a number of abusive techniques to assert their authority and
maintain control over the prisoners.
• Laud Humphrey’s Tearoom Trade Study: In this covert participant
observation study, Humphrey’s studied sensitive behaviors without
gaining consent beforehand and by misrepresenting himself in order
to conduct follow-up interviews.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
Three studies that raised ethical concerns and generated a
lot of discussion about subject’s rights in social psychology
are:
Ethics in Social Psychological Research
• Institutional Review Boards (IRBs): Researchers using human subjects
must have their prospective studied reviewed and approved by an
outside board. Social psychologists typically have their studies evaluated
by college/university human rights committees.
• Code of Ethics: Most professions in which research is conducted have
developed a code of ethics that all members are expected to adhere to.
• The general rule in research is that the expected benefits of a
study must outweigh any potential harm to subjects.
• To minimize risk and protect subjects, participants must be told of potential
risks in advance, participation must be voluntary, consent must be obtained,
and the data must be kept anonymous or confidential.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
• Researchers must make sure they don’t violate the rights of
individuals when they conduct their studies.
• Institutional Review Boards and Codes of Ethics help ensure
that the rights of subjects are protected.
Key Ethical Issues in Experiments,
Surveys and Participant Observation
The ethical issues involved in a particular study depend on the
specific topic and data collection methods that are used.
In general:
• The key concern in experiments pertains to the use of deception.
Subjects are never told the purpose of the study beforehand.
• Confidentiality is the key concern in surveys. The researcher must
protect the confidentiality of the participants’ responses.
• Results are usually presented at the aggregate level which makes identification of
individual subjects unlikely.
• The key ethical concern in participant observation is confidentiality.
Sometimes it is difficult to protect the participants given the detailed
nature of these analyses.
• Researchers use fictional names for the participants, groups they belong to and
the communities they live in.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
• Debriefing subjects at the end helps to address this concern.
Summary: Link between Face and Data
Collection Method
• Large-scale surveys with representative samples are the best way to
measure patterns in perceptions and behaviors. This is the focus of
SSSP researchers.
• Experimental research makes it possible to determine causality.
Since GPS researchers are able to control the composition of the
groups they study, they use experiments to test their hypotheses.
• The social processes of interest to SI researchers are best studied
using qualitative methods such as participant observation and/or
in-depth interviewing.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
The research question under investigation is the main factor
determining the selection of a research methodology. The face
of social psychology within which a researcher is working shapes
the selection of a research question.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis

Purchase answer to see full
attachment