Read Morling Chapters 1-2 and answer the questions -

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Worksheet #1

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Read each of the assigned chapters in Research Methods in Psychology. Then, answer the following questions with thorough explanations. Each question should, on average, take 1 – 2 pages to answer with a final page count of no more than 5 double-spaced pages. Don’t hesitate to do additional reading outside of the two texts if you need more clarity on the concepts discussed. If you do consult other works, be sure to correctly cite these sources in your reference page along with the two main texts for the course. Remember to integrate information from the textbooks with your answers and cite accordingly.

After reading chapter 1, answer the following:

Learning Actively Activity #3. The following links will help with answering the questions asked in the activity. Remember to integrate information from the textbooks with your answers and cite accordingly.

· https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/canine-corner/201604/the-data-says-dont-hug-the-dogLinks to an external site. (Original Blog Post)

· https://www.npr.org/2016/04/30/476212898/lets-not-hug-it-out-with-our-dogsLinks to an external site. (NPR article based on original blog post)

· https://www.cbsnews.com/boston/news/dogs-dont-like-hugs-canine-expert-says/Links to an external site. (CBS news article based on original blog post)

· https://www.click2houston.com/news/2016/04/26/dont-give-your-dog-hug-study-says/Links to an external site. (a Houston based local news story about the original blog post)

After reading chapter 2, answer the following:

Learning Actively Activity #2. Remember to integrate information from the textbooks with your answers and cite accordingly.

Research Report

The research report section of your worksheets is a progressive assignment that you will complete each week and assemble into a report and will act as the subject of your research oral report during week 8 of the course.

a. Select an empirical article (one that reports original research findings based on a Methods and Results section of the article) and preferably on a topic you find interesting. If you need help, you may pick an article from the list in this manual (see Appendix A of this manual).

b. Carefully read through the article and identify the research idea and the research question of the article.

c. IDEA-GENERATING PHASE: Write one or two sentences summarizing the research idea of the article.

d. PROBLEM-DEFINITION STAGE: Write one or two sentences that summarize the research question addressed by the published article selected. .

Question2

1. Read Morling Chapters 3-4

2. Read Morling Statistics Review: Descriptive Statistics (p.467-489)

3. Complete Morling Worksheet #2.

Session Two Documents

Worksheet #2

After reading chapter 3, answer the following:

Learning Actively Activity #3

After reading chapter 4, answer the following:

Learning Actively Activity # 2 and # 4

Research Report

a) DEFINE VARIABLES: Define the Independent Variable(s) and the Dependent Variable(s) in the article. Define any possible Extraneous Variables and Constants.

b) OPERATIONAL DEFINITION AND MEASUREMENT: Describe how the researchers measured the independent variable(s) and dependent variable(s).

Question.3

Read Morling chapters 5-6.
Read Morling Statistics Review: Inferential Statistics (p.491-516)
Complete Morling Worksheet #3.

Session Three Documents

Worksheet #3

After reading chapter 5, answer the following:

Learning Actively Activity #2

After reading chapter 6, answer the following:

Learning Actively Activity #2

Research Report

a) Answer the following: Is the measure of the independent variable(s) nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio data? Did the researchers use descriptive statistics and/or inferential statistics in the study?

b) RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS: What is the research hypothesis of the published empirical article you selected?

c). NULL HYPOTHESIS: What is the null hypothesis in the published empirical article you selected?

question4Assignments Due for Session Four

Read Morling chapters 7-8.
Complete Morling Worksheet #4.

Session Four Documents

Worksheet #4

After reading chapter 7, answer the following:

Learning Actively Activity #2

After reading chapter 8, answer the following:

Learning Actively Activity #2

Research Progress Report

a) CONTROL THROUGH EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: What is the control used in the published study?

b) NON-EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH OR EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: What is the non-experimental approach or experimental design of the published empirical article you selected?

c) STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: What is the statistical analysis used in the published empirical article you selected?

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Current Psychology (2023) 42:29831–29837
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03925-y
A study on the relationship between child abuse and neglect
and sexual addiction in a predominantly female population seeking
partners for sex
Shira Ashkenazi1 · Lital Anaki1 · Yael Nahum1 · A. Weinstein1
Accepted: 21 October 2022 / Published online: 23 November 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2022
Abstract
There is evidence that compulsive sexual behavior (CSB) is linked with childhood trauma in women and men. This study
has investigated the relationships between childhood abuse and neglect and compulsive sexual behavior in a mostly female
sample who use dating applications for sex. Participants were 200 adults (164 women and 36 men) mean age 26.88 years
(SD = 6.45) range 19–58, 74% were single, 19.5% married, 6.5% divorced or separated. Questionnaires were administered
by Google forms and included a demographic questionnaire, the Sexual Addiction Screening Test (SAST) and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ). There were positive associations between childhood sexual abuse (CSA), physical and
mental abuse and physical neglect, (but not emotional neglect) and CSB. Multiple regression analysis revealed that ratings
of child abuse (all apart from emotional neglect) have explained 57% of the variance of sexual addiction scores. This study
shows that CSA, mental and physical abuse and physical neglect have been related to CSB. These findings may have clinical
implications for understanding and treatment of CSB.
Keywords Compulsive sexual behavior · Childhood physical and mental abuse · Sexual abuse
Introduction
Sex addiction or compulsive sexual behavior
Sex addiction or compulsive sexual behavior disorder
(CSBD), is often described as having enhanced sexual activity and lack of success in efforts to control such behavior. It
has been argued that it is a clinical disorder associated with
impaired emotional and cognitive function (Karila et al.,
2014; Kraus et al., 2016, 2018). CSB is associated with
constant seeking of new partners for sexual, a high number of frequent sexual activity including masturbation and
frequent use of online pornography. Individuals with CSB
make efforts to reduce or stop problematic sexual behaviors
but they find it hard to stop it. They may be involved in risky
sexual activity, pay for sex and may be also at a high risk
of HIV.
* A. Weinstein
[email protected]; [email protected]
1
Department of Psychology and Behavioural Science, Ariel
University, Science Park, 40700 Ariel, Israel
Researchers and clinicians have debated whether to
recognize sex addiction or compulsive sexual disorder as
a clinical disorder. Although in the past, the DSM-III-R
(American Psychiatric Association, 1987) included sex
addiction, the DSM-IV-TR (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) removed it. Hyper-sexuality was proposed for the
DSM-V (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), it was
not included due to a lack of research into diagnostic criteria
for compulsive sexual behavior. The International Classification of Diseases for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics
(11th ed.; ICD-11; World Health Organization, 2018) has
included compulsive sexual behavior disorder as an impulse
control disorder. A recent debate paper (Sassover & Weinstein, 2020) have argued that there is insufficient evidence
for classifying CSBD as a behavioral addiction. The authors
have recommended that further research should done, examining CSBD using a homogeneous criterion. Finally, Levi
et al. (2020) have shown that obsessive–compulsive symptoms correlated with CSB in users of dating applications for
sex whereas impulsivity correlated with problematic pornography use. These findings support the argument that CSB
has both impulsive and compulsive components.
13
Vol.:(0123456789)
29832
Despite the controversy about the definition of CSBD,
over the last several decades, there is increasing number
of studies on CSBD (Kraus et al., 2016; Sassover & Weinstein, 2020). Previous research has evaluated the development of CSBD and its association with personality and
it also examined gender differences (Dhuffar & Griffiths,
2014; Lewczuk et al., 2017).
We have conducted several studies on CSB among
young people who used the Internet for sexual activity.
Weinstein et al. (2015b) have studied individuals who used
Pornography and Cybersex Internet sites. Pornography,
gender and cybersex were associated with difficulty in intimacy. Men had higher frequency of using cybersex than
women and higher craving for pornography than women.
Zlot et al. (2018) have investigated users of Internet dating applications like Tinder, and they showed higher sex
addiction ratings than non-users. Furthermore, participants
who scored high on sex addiction had also high scores
of social anxiety. Shimoni et al. (2018) have discovered
that among the Big Five Personality factors, low conscientiousness and high explained a significant variance of sex
addiction scores (neuroticism made only marginal contribution). Women showed that openness correlated with sex
addiction. Most of studies on CSBD rely on male rather
than female samples (Karila et al., 2014) hence it is important to study female populations.
Child physical, psychological and sexual abuse
There is evidence that children and adolescents can be
subjected to physical and psychological abuse. The World
Health Organization (WHO, 2020) has reported that
almost 3 out of 4 children that is 300 million children
between 2 and 4 years old suffer regularly physical and
or mental abuse by parents and caregivers. Sexual abuse
is reported in 1 in 5 women and 1 in 13 men as a child
between birth and 17 years. Around 120 million girls and
young women under the age of 20 have suffered forced
sexual activity. The results of child physical and mental
abuse include physical and mental health problems. A
recent study has investigated domestic violence in children
in Nigeria has found no gender differences.
History of child sexual abuse (CSA) is known as an
important vulnerability factor for CSBD. Among individuals who self-reported CSB, 80% have also disclosed CSA
(Carnes & Delmonico, 1996). Lower rates were reported
Black et al. (1997) 31%, and 28% by Kafka and Prentky
(1992). Several studies have shown that child sexual abuse
severity is a unique predictor of compulsive sexual behavior and sexual addiction (Kuzma & Black, 2008; Blain
et al., 2012).
13
Current Psychology (2023) 42:29831–29837
Sex addiction and gender
Problematic sexual behavior in women has been related to
traumatic experiences and disappointment with relationships
(Fattore et al., 2014). Sexual behavior is viewed by women
in context of a relationship (McKeague, 2014) and it can be
enhanced by cybersex (Weinstein et al., 2015b). Men use
enhanced sexual activity in order to cope with negative emotions (Bancroft & Vukadinovic, 2004). Men showed greater
craving for sex and more frequent cybersex use than women
(Weinstein et al., 2015b).
Women with CSB have higher ratings of hypersexual behavior and use of cybersex as well as depression,
attempted suicide, CSA, and pornography exposure (Corley & Hook, 2012). In examining etiological factors of sex
addiction, four main areas were focused on: trauma, attachment, shame, and cultural contributions (McKeague, 2014).
The Internet enables anonymity and lack of stigma and it
allows for sexual activity online without shame or guilt
(Dhuffar & Griffiths, 2014; Doring, 2009). The increasing
use of sexual and dating platforms enables exploration of
sexual urges and finding sexual partners for casual or long
term sexual activities (Sumter et al., 2017; Timmermans &
Courtois, 2018).
Assessment of CSBD
The Sexual Addiction Screening Test (Carnes & O’Hara,
1991) has demonstrated good internal consistency and reliability and has been used by criminal justice, treatment
centers, and educational programs (Rosenberg et al., 2014).
The items on the SAST address the preoccupation with sex
directly (Carnes et al., 2014) and it is associated with the
diagnostic criteria of CSBD (Carnes et al., 2014).
Rationale for this study
Slavin et al. (2020) have reviewed twenty one studies and
the majority have shown associations between CSA and
CSBD. However, there are problems in this research including variability in measurements, differences between community samples and clinical samples, many student studies,
no clear gender differences, and an urgent need for longitudinal studies. The aim of this study was to examine the
relationships between the different types of child abuse and
and neglect and CSB among a mainly female sample. Childhood sexual, physical and mental abuse is hypothesized to be
positively related to sex addiction. It was further predicted
that childhood abuse would contribute to ratings of CSB.
This study was advertised to males and females, but most of
the responders were females. It is known that among people
Current Psychology (2023) 42:29831–29837
with sex addiction who were sexually abused in their childhood and adolescence there is a majority of women, so the
sample is quite representative of the population.
Methods
Participants
Inclusion criteria were males and females between 18 and
60 years old who use applications for finding sex partners.
The sample included 200 participants (164 women and 36
men), age of twenty six years and eleven months (SD = 6.45)
range 19–58. All participants had an Israeli nationality,
85.5% were Jewish. 74% were single, 19.5% married, 6.5%
divorced or single. The sample included 38% with highschool education, 52% with high academic education of
which 47.5% had a Bachelor degree and 4.5% had a Master’s
degree from a university.
Measures
Demographic questionnaire
The demographic questionnaire had self-reported items
including age, gender, education, marital status and religion.
Sexual Addiction Screening Test (SAST)
The SAST (Carnes & O’Hara, 1991) measures sexual addiction by using 25 items. These are scored as 0 or 1 with a
positive score being added to the total score. Scores on the
SAST above 6 indicate sexual addiction and scores above
13 are positive diagnosis of sexual addiction (Carnes &
O’Hara, 1991). The Hebrew version had an internal consistency Cronbach’s α = 0.80 (Zlot et al., 2018) and in our
study Cronbach’s α = 0.85.
Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ)
The CTQ (Bernstein et al., 1994) is a questionnaire on
childhood abuse and neglect containing 28 items and 6
scales including: physical abuse (n = 5), emotional neglect
(n = 7), sexual abuse (n = 5), emotional abuse (n = 5) physical neglect (n = 3) and denial of the experience of abuse
(n = 4). One item (number 4) was for both physical neglect
and denial for the experience of abuse. The items were
rated on a 5 scale from 1 “never happened” to 5 “very often
happened”. Score ranges from 28 to 140 and there are 10
reversed items opposite. Cronbach’s α internal consistency
of the Hebrew version domains (Tomarkin, 2007) ranged
from 0.82 to 0.94, in the current study internal consistency
Cronbach’s α for physical and mental abuse was 0.87, sexual
29833
abuse was 0.89, physical neglect was 0.39 and for emotional
neglect it was 0.83.
Procedure
The study was advertised online in Internet sites that are
being used to seek sexual partners (for example Tinder).
The questionnaires were filled-in by participants on-line on
Google forms. They were told that the study investigates
sexual behavior and that anonymity will be maintained.
Ethical approval
The University has approved the study by the Institutional
Review Board (IRB, Helsinki committee). An informed consent form was signed by all participants.
Statistical and data analysis
A Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) windows
v.21 (IBM Corp. Armonk, NY, USA was utilized for the analysis of the results. Demographic data were collected including marital status, education, and religion. Pearson’s correlation test was used to correlate variables. A linear regression
analysis model with all factors of abuse and neglect as predictors of sex addiction scores was performed using SPSS.
Statistical significance was determined at 0.05%.
Results
Sample characteristics
An analysis of scores on the SAST has shown that 56 (28%)
were classified with sex addiction, 19 participants (9.5%)
with a positive rate for sexual addiction and 125 (62.5%)
as non-sexual addicted following the Carnes and O’Hara
(1991) criteria. Forty one participants (20.5%) scored above
median on the CTQ. Table 1, show questionnaire ratings in
all participants. Table 2 shows simple correlations between
personality traits and sex addiction.
Table 1 Questionnaire ratings in all participants M (SD) (n = 200)
Questionnaire
Min
Max
Mean (SD)
SAST
CTQ physical and mental abuse
CTQ emotional neglect
CTQ sexual abuse
CTQ physical neglect
0
7
13
4
4
25
35
85
20
20
5.56 (4.68)
9.96(5.15)
34.44(12.38)
6.23(3.76)
6.69(2.63)
SAST Sex Addiction Screening Test
CTQ Childhood Trauma Questionnaire Bernstein et al. (1994)
13
29834
Table 2 Simple correlations
between personality traits and
sex addiction
Current Psychology (2023) 42:29831–29837
Factor
SAST
CTQ physical and
mental abuse
CTQ emotional neglect
CTQ physical and mental abuse
CTQ emotional neglect
CTQ sexual abuse
CTQ physical neglect
046.**
0.04
0.55**
0.22**
0.15*
0.65**
0.42**
0.14*
-0.33**
CTQ sexual abuse
0.28**
SAST Sex Addiction Screening Test
CTQ Childhood Trauma Questionnaire
**
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
Table 3 Linear regression analysis of CTQ scores contribution to
SAST scores
Factor
B
SEB
β
CTQ physical and mental abuse
CTQ emotional neglect
CTQ sexual abuse
CTQ physical neglect
0.42*
0
0.08**
0
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.17
-0.04
0.44
0.01
F(4, 196) = 23.76, R2 = 0.57
SAST Sex Addiction Screening Test
CTQ Childhood Trauma Questionnaire
**
significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *significant at the 0.05 level
(2-tailed)
Relationships between childhood abuse and neglect
and sex addiction
The Pearson’s test has shown positive correlations between
childhood sexual abuse and sex addiction (r = 0.55, p < 0.01), physical and mental abuse and sex addiction (r = 0.46, p < 0.01), and physical neglect and sex addiction (r = 0.22, p < 0.01) but not between emotional neglect and sex addiction (r = 0.04; p = N.S.). A regression analysis has shown a significant contribution of CTQ factors of child abuse to the variance of SAST scores [F (4, 196) = 23.77, p < 0.01, R2adj = 0.57]. Sexual abuse has explained 57% of the variance of scores on the SAST. See Table 3 for regression analysis of all variables. Discussion This study has investigated the associations between childhood abuse and neglect and sex addiction in a sample of mainly women who use social network forums for finding sex partners. Childhood abuse and neglect (apart from emotional neglect) were linked with CSB ratings and ratings of sexual abuse have explained a large percentage (57%) of the variance of scores of CSB. This evidence is supported by previous research that showed high rates of childhood 13 trauma and abuse, particularly in those seeking treatment for CSB. Women had higher rates and severity of traumas than men and these varied between 76–96% (Opitz et al., 2009; Perera et al., 2009; Ross, 1996; Schwartz & Southern, 2000; Tedesco & Bola, 1997; Weiss, 2000). Our results are compatible with the finding that majority of studies on CSA and CSBD have found associations between them (Slavin et al., 2020). It is important to examine other factors that may mediate this relationship such as other abuse, psychopathology, response to stress, emotional regulation, and control over behavior. As mentioned earlier, CSA severity is a predictor of CSB in adulthood as well as for anxiety and depression (Blain et al., 2012). Perera et al. (2009) have reported that CSA and early life poor family relationships were linked to the beginning and maintenance of hyper-sexual behavior. Males with history of child sexual abuse are more likely to develop CSBD and may require long-term treatment. Recent studies have shown that child sexual abuse can be associated with negative sexual attitudes and behaviors including early age of sexual activity, many sexual partners, high-risk sexual activity, dissatisfaction from sex and victimization (Vaillancourt-Morel et al., 2015). Those with CSA are at risk for clinical conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety and depression. CSB can be an avoidance mechanism from depression, anxiety and PTSD (Blain et al., 2012). There is evidence for a relationship between child sexual abuse and compulsive sexual behavior. Adams et al. (2018) have shown that adolescents, particularly females, with CSA suffer from anxiety, depression and PTSD. On the other hand, women with sexual compulsivity report shame, abandonment and past abuse (Turner, 2008; Coleman et al., 2003). Adolescents with CSA often manifest CSBD and binge eating disorder (Turner, 2008; Coleman et al., 2003). The traumatic experiences of child sexual abuse could have also a negative impact on psychological and sexual intimacy in adulthood. Sexual avoidance and compulsivity can occur simultaneously among victims of sexual abuse, indicating a lack of satisfaction from relationships, mood shifts and disorganized attachment (Bhandari et al., 2011; Jonson-Reid Current Psychology (2023) 42:29831–29837 et al., 2012; van Duin et al., 2018). Vaillancourt-Morel et al. (2015) have performed a pathway analysis on the relationships between CSA, CSB and sexual avoidance and they have found that CSA was positively and significantly associated with both CSB and sexual avoidance. Sexual compulsivity and sexual avoidance significantly predicted lower dyadic adjustment that is the individual’s perceptions of his/ her relationship with an intimate partner and lead to sexual ambivalence (Vaillancourt-Morel et al. (2015). Another explanation for the association between CSA and CSB is attachment theories that have argued that early experience with caretakers shape later life behavior and self-concept. CSA can lead to distorted intimacy and selfconcept. There is also evidence that CSB is associated with attachment difficulties. There is evidence for a correlation between avoidant and anxious attachment and CSB (Weinstein et al., 2015a) and difficulty in intimacy among frequent users of Pornography and cybersex Internet sites (Weinstein et al., 2015b). In our study, physical neglect has been associated with sex addiction. The research on neglect is very sparse and it is often neglected (Stoltenborgh et al., 2013; Sciarrino et al., 2018). Physical neglect is shown by a lack of adequate response to the physical needs of children like food, clothes, hygiene and medical treatment (Stoltenborgh et al., 2013). The long-term sequel of childhood neglect may include drug and alcohol use, economical disadvantage, dangerous sexual activity, high risk for post-traumatic stress disorder, attachment difficulties, need for social services and increased violence. It seems that the consequences of neglect are as important as childhood abuse, and studies have shown that neglect is often associated with abuse (Stoltenborgh et al., 2013). Childhood neglect can be experienced as traumatic by children leading to anxiety and distress. It can become a trigger for chronic stress that and the development of acute biological response affecting cognitive, psychological and brain development (De Bellis, 2005). A particular attention should be paid to the relationships between CSA and risk-taking sexual activity among college students. Students at college have greater ease in finding sexual partners and they experience greater openness to sex, they may have greater vulnerability for sexual problems. There should be efforts to help students with CSA who report risky sexual behaviors, CSB or problematic pornography use. Another important issue to consider is the effect of sex-differences on the association between CSA and CSB. Especially regarding traditional social gender norms in view of the evidence for the high number of women who were abused by a family member. The current study has added to existing knowledge by examining the different types of childhood abuse and its relationships with CSB. Secondly, the population that was studied is a relatively large “normative” group of 29835 predominantly based women who use applications to find partners for sexual activity. Our results suggest that childhood abuse and neglect may be associated with pre-occupation with sexual behavior and difficulty in control of sexual behavior. These conclusions are highly important for policy makers, researchers and clinicians. Limitations This was a cross-sectional study based on self-reports and therefore there is a risk that the results may be affected by social desirability. There is an urgent need for longitudinal studies that will investigate how abuse and neglect affect sexual behavior in later life. Participants were recruited anonymously from dating websites and validity or reliability of their responses, particularly regarding traumatic experiences cannot be verified. Although the SAST has demonstrated good internal consistency and reliability, some of the items may be biased and misinterpreted to religious and legal practices in different countries. Furthermore, since there is a controversy whether to recognize sexual addiction as a psychiatric disorder, there is a risk that of misdiagnosing the normative sample in this study. Finally, it is plausible that cross-cultural attitudes towards sex may have influenced the results of this study. Little is known about Israeli participants’ attitudes towards sex, and evidence about cross-cultural sexual practices in Israel is limited. In conclusion This study showed evidence for relationships between child abuse, child neglect and CSB. The study has important implications for our understanding and treatment of compulsive sexual behavior. It is important for policy makers and health professionals to acknowledge the importance of early child abuse to the development of difficulties in attachment, intimacy and sexual behavior later on in life. It is also important for clinicians to treat problems of child abuse and neglect during counselling individuals with problems of sexual behavior. Although this may be a long process, the successful treatment of abuse, shame, and confusion between intimacy and sexuality can be an important contribution to society. Further studies can examine CSA and other forms of childhood abuse and neglect and CSBD among couples, religious and homosexual populations. Authors’ contribution All individuals included as authors of the paper have contributed substantially to the scientific process leading up to the writing of the paper. The authors have contributed to the conception and design of the project, performance of the experiments, analysis 13 29836 and interpretation of the results and preparing the manuscript for publication. Funding The study was done as part of an academic course in behavioral addiction at the University of Ariel, Ariel, Israel. Data availability The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during this study are available from the authors on reasonable request. 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