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Chapter 2: Trait Approach
Overview
 Great Person Theories
 Historical Shifts in Trait Perspective
 What Traits Differentiate Leaders From
Nonleaders?
 How Does the Trait Approach Work?
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Great Person Theories
Trait Approach: one of the first systematic
attempts to study leadership
 “Great Man” Theories (early 1900s)
 Focused on identifying innate
qualities and characteristics
possessed by great social, political,
& military leaders
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Historical Shifts in Trait Perspective
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Major Leadership Traits
Traits to possess or cultivate if one seeks to be
perceived by others as a leader:
 Intelligence – Verbal, perceptual, and reasoning
capabilities. Ex. Steve Jobs
 Self-Confidence – Certainty about one’s
competencies and skills. Ex. Steve Jobs
 Determination – Desire to get the job done (i.e.,
initiative, persistence, drive). Ex. Dr. Paul Farmer
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Major Leadership Traits
Traits to possess or cultivate if one seeks to be
perceived by others as a leader:
 Integrity – The quality of honesty and
trustworthiness. Ex. Character Counts! program
 Sociability – Leader’s inclination to seek out
pleasant social relationships. Ex. Michael Hughes,
university president
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
5-Factor Personality Model & Leadership
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
5-Factor Personality Model & Leadership
Big Five & Leadership Study Using Meta-Analysis
(Judge et al., 2002)
Results – a strong relationship between personality
traits and leadership
 Extraversion – factor most strongly associated with
leadership
 Most important trait of effective leaders
 Conscientiousness – second most related factor
 Openness – next most related
 Low Neuroticism
 Agreeableness – only weakly related to leadership
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Emotional Intelligence & Leadership
Definition
Underlying Premise
Ability to perceive and:
 apply emotions to life’s tasks
 reason/understand emotions
 express emotions
 use emotions to facilitate

people who are more
sensitive to their
emotions & their impact
on others will be more
effective leaders
thinking
 manage emotions within oneself
and relationships
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Different Ways to Measure EQ
 MSCEIT: EQ as a set of mental abilities
 to perceive, facilitate, understand, and manage emotion
 Goleman (1995, 1998): EQ as a set of personal and
social competencies
 self-awareness, confidence, self-regulation, conscientiousness,
and motivation
 Shankman & Allen (2002): EQ as awareness of three
aspects of leadership
 context, self, and others
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
How Does the Trait Approach Work?
 Focus of Trait Approach
 Strengths
 Criticisms
 Application
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Focus of Trait Approach
Leader
Personality Assessments
 Focuses exclusively
 Organizations use personality
assessments to find “right” people
on leader
What traits leaders
exhibit
 Who has these traits

Assumption – will increase
organizational effectiveness
 Specify characteristics/traits for
specific positions

• Personality assessment
measures for “fit”
• Instruments: LTQ, Myers-Briggs
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Strengths
 Intuitively appealing
 Perception that leaders
are different in that they
possess special traits
 People “need” to view
leaders as gifted
 Highlights leadership
 Credibility due to a
 Provides benchmarks for
century of research
support
what to look for in a leader
component in the
leadership process

Deeper level understanding
of how leader/personality is
related to leadership process
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Criticisms
 Fails to delimit a
 List of most important
definitive list of
leadership traits
leadership traits is highly
subjective
 Endless lists have
 Much subjective experience &
emerged
 Doesn’t take into
account situational
effects
 Leaders in one situation
may not be leaders in
another situation
observations serve as basis
for identified leadership traits
 Research fails to look at
traits in relationship to
leadership outcomes
 Not useful for training &
development
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Application
 Provides direction as to which traits are
good to have if one aspires to a
leadership position
 Through various tests and questionnaires,
individuals can determine whether they
have the select leadership traits and can
pinpoint their strengths and weaknesses
Leadership Traits
• Intelligence
• Self-Confidence
• Determination
• Integrity
• Sociability
 Can be used by managers to assess where they stand
within their organization and what is needed to strengthen
their position
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Chapter 3: Skills Approach
Overview
 Skills Approach Perspective
 Three-Skill Approach (Katz, 1955)
 Skills-Based Model (Mumford et al., 2000)
 How Does the Skills Approach Work?
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Skills Approach Description
Perspective
Definition
 Leader-centered
Leadership skills-
perspective
 Emphasis on skills
and abilities that
can be learned and
developed
The ability to use one’s
knowledge and
competencies to
accomplish a set of
goals and objectives
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Three-Skill Approach (Katz, 1955)
 Technical Skill
 Human Skill
 Conceptual Skill
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Basic Administrative Skills – Katz (1955)
Leaders need
all three skills—
but relative
importance
changes based
on level of
management
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Technical Skill
 Having knowledge about and being proficient in a
specific type of work or activity.
 Specialized competencies
 Analytical ability
 Use of appropriate tools and techniques
 Technical skills involve hands-on ability with a product or
process
 Most important at lower levels of management
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Human Skill
 Having knowledge about and being able to work
with people.
 Being aware of one’s own perspective and others’
perspectives at the same time
 Assisting group members in working cooperatively to
achieve common goals
 Creating an atmosphere of trust and empowerment of
members
 Important at all levels of the organization
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Conceptual Skill
 the ability to do the mental work of shaping
meaning of organizational policy or issues (what
company stands for and where it’s going)
 Works easily with abstraction and hypothetical
notions
 Central to creating and articulating a vision and
strategic plan for an organization
 Most important at top management levels
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Skills-Based Model
 Skills Model Perspective
 Competencies
 Individual Attributes
 Leadership Outcomes
 Career Experiences
 Environmental Influences
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Skills Model Description
(Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, & Fleishman, 2000)
Perspective
Skills-Based Model of
Leadership
Capability model goal: to identify the
Examines relationship
leadership factors that create between a leader’s
exemplary job performance in knowledge & skills & the
an organization
leader’s performance.
 Emphasizes the capabilities
Suggests many people have
that make effective
the potential for leadership
leadership possible rather
than what leaders do
 Research studies (1990s)
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Competencies Skills
Problem Solving
Social Judgment
Knowledge
Creative ability to
solve
new/unusual, illdefined
organizational
problems
Capacity to understand
people and social
systems
– Perspective taking
The accumulation of
information & the
mental structures to
organize the
information
– Social perceptiveness
– Behavioral flexibility
– Social performance
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Individual Attributes
General Cognitive
Ability
Crystallized
Cognitive Ability
Person’s intelligence
Intellectual ability
learned or
acquired over
time
• Perceptual
processing
• Information
processing
• General reasoning
• Creative & divergent
thinking
Motivation
Personality
Three aspects
of motivation
Any characteristic
that helps people
cope with complex
organizational
situations is
probably related to
leader
performance
•Willingness
•Dominance
•-Social good
• Memory
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Leadership Outcomes
Problem Solving
Criteria = originality & quality of
solutions to problem situations –
good problem solving involves
creating solutions that are:
– Logical
Performance
Degree to which a
leader has
successfully
performed his/her
assigned duties
– Effective
– Unique
– Go beyond given information
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Career Experiences
Challenging
Assignments
Mentoring
Appropriate
Training
Hands-on
Experience with
Novelty
 Experience gained during career influences leader’s
knowledge & skills to solve complex problems
 Leaders learn and develop higher levels of conceptual
capacity if they progressively confront more complex and
long-term problems as they ascend the organizational
hierarchy
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Environmental Influences
Factors in a leader’s situation that lie
outside of his or her competencies,
characteristics, and experiences
– Internal environmental influences – Ex.
Outdated technology, skill level of
employees
– External environmental influences – Ex.
Economic, political, or social issues; natural
disasters
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
How Does the Skills Approach Work?
 Focus of Skills Approach
 Strengths
 Criticisms
 Application
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Skills Approach
Focus
 Focus is primarily
descriptive – it
describes leadership
from skills perspective
 Provides structure for
understanding the
nature of effective
leadership
Principal Research
Perspectives
 Katz (1955) suggests importance of
particular leadership skills varies
depending where leaders reside in
management hierarchy
 Mumford, Campion, & Morgeson, (2007)
suggest higher levels of all skills needed at
higher levels of hierarchy
 Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding et al. (2000)
suggest leadership outcomes are direct
result of leader’s skilled competency in
problem solving, social judgment, &
knowledge
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Strengths
 First approach to conceptualize and create a
structure of the process of leadership around skills
 Describing leadership in terms of skills makes
leadership available to everyone
 Provides an expansive view of leadership that
incorporates wide variety of components (i.e.,
problem-solving skills, social judgment skills)
 Provides a structure consistent with leadership
education programs
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Criticisms
 Breadth of the skills approach appears to extend
beyond the boundaries of leadership, making it
more general, less precise
 Weak in predictive value; does not explain how
skills lead to effective leadership performance
 Skills model includes individual attributes that are
trait-like
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Application
 The Skills Approach provides a way to delineate the
skills of a leader
 It is applicable to leaders at all levels within the
organization
 The skills inventory can provide insights into the
individual’s leadership competencies
 Test scores allow leaders to learn about areas in
which they may wish to seek further training
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Chapter 4: Behavioral Approach
Overview
 Behavioral Approach Perspective
 Ohio State Studies
 University of Michigan Studies
 Blake & Mouton’s Leadership Grid
 How Does the Style Approach Work?
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Behavioral Approach Description
Perspective
 Emphasizes the
behavior of the
leader
 Focuses
exclusively on
what leaders do
and how they act
Definition
Composed of two general
kinds of Behaviors
Task behaviors
Facilitate goal accomplishment:
Help group members achieve
objectives
Relationship behaviors
Help subordinates feel comfortable
with themselves, each other, and
the situation
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Ohio State Studies
 Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire
(LBDQ)
 Identify number of times leaders engaged in specific
behaviors
• 150 questions
 Participant settings (military, industrial, educational)
 Results
• Particular clusters of behaviors were typical of
leaders
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Ohio State Studies, cont’d.
 LBDQ-XII (Stogdill, 1963)
 Shortened version of the LBDQ
 Most widely used leadership assessment instrument
 Results – Two general types of leader behaviors:
• Initiating structure – Leaders provide structure for
subordinates
▪ Task behaviors – organizing work, giving structure to the work
context, defining role responsibility, scheduling work activities
• Consideration – Leaders nurture subordinates
▪ Relationship behaviors – building camaraderie, respect, trust, &
liking between leaders & followers
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
University of Michigan Studies
 Exploring leadership behavior
 Specific emphasis on impact of leadership behavior on
performance of small groups
 Results – Two types of leadership behaviors
conceptualized as opposite ends of a single continuum
 Employee orientation
• Strong human relations emphasis
 Production orientation
• Stresses the technical aspects of a job
 Later studies reconceptualized behaviors as two independent
leadership orientations – possible orientation to both at the
same time
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Blake & Mouton’s Grid
 Historical Perspective
 Leadership Grid Components
 Authority-Compliance (9,1)
 Country Club Management (1,9)
 Impoverished Management (1,1)
 Middle-of-the-Road Management (5,5)
 Team Management (9,9)
 Paternalism/Maternalism (1,9; 9,1)
 Opportunism
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Historical Perspective
Blake & Mouton’s Managerial Leadership Grid
Development
 Developed in early
1960s
 Used extensively in
organizational training
& development
Purpose
Designed to explain how
leaders help organizations to
reach their purposes
 Two factors
• Concern for production
▪ How a leader is concerned with
achieving organizational tasks
• Concern for people
▪ How a leader attends to the
members of the organization who
are trying to achieve its goals
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Authority-Compliance (9,1)
Definition
 Efficiency in operations results
from arranging conditions of
work such that human
interference is minimal
Role Focus
 Heavy emphasis on task and job
requirements and less emphasis on
people
 Communicating with subordinates
mainly for task instructions
 Results driven – people regarded
as tools to that end
 9,1 leaders – seen as controlling,
demanding, hard-driving, &
overpowering
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Country Club (1,9)
Definition
 Thoughtful attention to the
needs of people leads to a
comfortable, friendly
organizational atmosphere
and work tempo
Role Focus
 Low concern for task
accomplishment coupled with high
concern for interpersonal
relationships
 Deemphasizes production;
leaders stress the attitudes and
feelings of people
 1,9 leaders – try to create a
positive climate by being
agreeable, eager to help,
comforting, noncontroversial
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Impoverished (1,1)
Definition
 Minimal effort exerted to get
work done is appropriate to
sustain organizational
membership
Role Focus
 Leader unconcerned with
both task and interpersonal
relationships
 Going through the motions,
but uninvolved and
withdrawn
 1,1 leaders – have little
contact with followers and are
described as indifferent,
noncommittal, resigned, and
apathetic
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Middle-of-the-Road (5,5)
Definition
Role Focus
 Adequate organizational
 Leaders who are compromisers;
performance possible
through balancing the
necessity of getting work
done while maintaining
satisfactory morale
have intermediate concern for task
and people who do task
 To achieve equilibrium, leader avoids
conflict while emphasizing moderate
levels of production and interpersonal
relationships
 5,5 leader – described as expedient;
prefers the middle ground; soft-pedals
disagreement; swallows convictions
in the interest of “progress”
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Team (9,9)
Definition
 Work accomplished
through committed people;
interdependence via a
“common stake” in the
organization’s purpose,
which leads to
relationships of trust and
respect
Role Focus
 Strong emphasis on both tasks
and interpersonal relationships
 Promotes high degree of
participation & teamwork, satisfies
basic need of employee to be
involved & committed to their work
 9,9 leader – stimulates participation,
acts determined, makes priorities
clear, follows through, behaves
open-mindedly and enjoys working
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Paternalism / Maternalism
Definition
Reward and
approval are bestowed
on people in return for
loyalty and obedience;
failure to comply leads
to punishment
Role Focus
 Leaders who use both 1,9 and 9,1
without integrating the two
 The “benevolent dictator”; acts
gracious for purpose of goal
accomplishment
 Treats people as though they were
disassociated from the task
 Regards the organization as a family
 Makes most of the key decisions
 Rewards loyalty and punishes noncompliance
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Opportunism
Definition
Role Focus
 People adapt and shift
 Performance occurs according to a
to any grid style needed
to gain maximum
advantage
system of selfish gain
 Leader uses any combination of
the basic five styles for the
purpose of personal advancement
 May be seen as ruthless and
cunning
 May also be seen as adaptable
and strategic
Leaders usually have a
dominant grid style used in
most situations and a backup
style that is reverted to when
under pressure
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
How Does the Behavioral Approach
Work?
 Focus of Behavioral Approach
 Strengths
 Criticisms
 Application
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Behavioral Approach
Focus
Overall Scope
 Primarily a framework
 Offers a general means of
for assessing
leadership as behavior
with a task and
relationship dimension
assessing the behaviors of
leaders
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Strengths
 Behavioral approach marked a major shift in leadership
research from exclusively trait focused to include behaviors
and actions of leaders
 Broad range of studies on leadership style validates and
gives credibility to the basic tenets of the approach
 At conceptual level, a leader’s style is composed of two
major types of behaviors: task and relationship
 The behavioral approach is heuristic—leaders can learn a
lot about themselves and how they come across to others
by trying to see their behaviors in light of the task and
relationship dimensions
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Criticisms
 Research has not adequately demonstrated how
leaders’ styles are associated with performance
outcomes
 No universal style of leadership that could be
effective in almost every situation
 Implies that the most effective leadership style is
High-High style (i.e., high task/high relationship);
research finding support is limited
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Application
 Many leadership training and development programs
are designed along the lines of the style approach.
 By assessing their own style, managers can
determine how they are perceived by others and how
they could change their behaviors to become more
effective.
 The style approach applies to nearly everything a
leader does.
Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.

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