Description
Egypt: The Habit of Civilization
Watch the Michael Wood film: Egypt: The Habit of Civilization to the 27:30 mark. Note the following as you watch the film. (Feel free to watch the entire film. After the 27:30 mark the film deals with the Greek and later periods in Egypt.)
What is depicted on the black slate of Narmer?
How were the pyramids built?
Michael Wood states that “in the bronze age, the many surrendered power to the few.” What were the keys to ruling Egypt?
What kind of place was Abydos?
This discussion has two parts. Your total writing should be at least 300 words and you must also comment on the post of a colleague.
Part I: Based on the Michael Wood documentary on Egypt and the lesson explain a key factor that made Egypt a mostly stable civilization for 3,000 years?
Part II: Answer three of the following.
The Epic of Gilgamesh. Let’s continue with the story! For this discussion we are working with Tablets III, IV, V, VI, and VII. (Pages 23-62). Include page number citations for your examples.
1. (Tablets III and IV) Why exactly do Gilgamesh and Enkidu decide to fight and kill Humbaba? How does Enkidu interpret Gilgamesh’s dream?
2. (Tablet V) What happens in the fight with Humbaba. Provide a key detail.
3. (Tablet VI) Ishtar wants to marry Gilgamesh but he says no. Why? How does she respond to this rejection?
4. (Tablet VI and VII) What happens to the Bull of Heaven? What do the gods decide?
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Material Culture and Memory in Early World History
Peter Utgaard, Ph.D.
Professor of History, Cuyamaca College
cover photo: Chinese Terracotta soldier. Photo by the author.
Material Culture and Memory in Early World History
by
Peter Utgaard, Ph.D.
Professor of History, Cuyamaca College
copyright 2013
Students and faculty of the Grossmont-Cuyamaca Community College District
may copy this work for educational use.
2
Material Culture and Memory: Introduction and Key Terms
What do material culture and historical memory mean as they relate to early world
history? Material culture refers to the interaction between the objects humans create (both
individually and as organized groups) and their broader cultural practices and beliefs. Material
objects, when studied in context, can tell us a great deal about peoples and their histories. We
learn how they make things, how they consume things, and in the end, we know more about
the way they lived. This approach has recently been popularized by the British Museum project
on the history of the world in 100 objects (“from the handaxe to the credit card”); a project
which began as a series on BBC 4. See the website http://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/
This book builds on this concept and expands the idea of material culture to include
monumental building. Material objects are especially fruitful for historical analysis because
they give us evidence beyond the written word. In the words of Neil MacGregor, they are
“signals from the past.” For example, if someone from another culture and time were to visit
the United States, they would recognize that automobiles are a major part of American material
culture. The auto is a status of symbol, a mode of transportation, and invididuals and the entire
society devote enormous resources (energy, building roads and other infrastructure) to suppport
that aspect our material culture. Similarly, if we examine an Egyptian pyramid as an object of
material culture, we can interpet it as a work of engineering, a religious symbol, a window into
understanding how the Egyptians mobilized labor, and so on.
Historical memory refers to the way people think about the past (both individually and
collectively) and how their views of the past impact their view of the present. Historical
memory is everywhere. It is most obviously reflected in what French historian Pierre Nora
called “sites of memory” (lieux de Mémoire). Sites of memory are places such as monuments
and museums where the past is deliberately called into memory (e.g. the new Martin Luther
King memorial in Washington or the new National Park Service memorial at the Flight 93
crash site). Sites of memory can also be documents, books, or other objects that evoke
memories of the past. Sites of memory often intersect with objects of material culture because
objects can trigger individual or collective memories both intentionally and unintentionally. It
is through these objects and sites of memory that most humans interact with the past.
This reader centers around two categories of material culture: small scale objects of
material culture (e.g. Ötzi the “ice man’s” bronze age clothes) and large scale objcts of material
culture (e.g. the Pyramids), and sites of memory. Often, we deal with both at the same time.
Because early world history is, by nature, somewhat interdisciplinary, we will also be working
with material related to archaeology, historical and physical geography, museum studies, and
anthropology, among others.
How to Use This Book
This book treats objects of material culture (including architectural sites) as texts to be
interpreted. Each entry explains key aspects of the object at hand, but then poses further
questions. Instead of the model of “here is a document, what might it mean,” we begin with
“here is what this means, but what else does it mean?” The idea is that we are on a journey of
3
discovery, but with a map and compass in hand. The book is organized chronologically
focusing on the following periods: Part I, Before Civilization, Part II, Early Civilizations, Part
III, Classical Civilizations, and Part IV, From Medieval and Postclassical Civilizations to the
First Global Age.
Throughout this book the reader is prompted to interpret an object or site as material
culture. Specifically, when you encounter this question you should exaplin: 1) when it was
made, 2) how it was made, 3) unique and culturally specific aspects of the object, and 4) what
it meant to the people of the time. Other commonly-posed questions relate to historical
memory. Here, the reader will direct you to some specific question to be answered.
A Note on Research
To get the most out of this book, you will be conducting regular internet research. While the
internet is an important and invaluable tool, library research will also necessary. In fact, the
two overlap, for the internet is not so much a source of information as it is a gateway to
information. For example, most libraries now have their catalogs online, whereas fifteen years
ago they could only be accessed from computer terminals inside a library. Before then, many
libraries still relied on card catalogs. Now from anywhere where one has internet access, one
can access the library catalog of major libraries such as UCSD. Through interlibrary loan
programs, one can often receive materials without traveling long distances. In short, the
internet adds up to more efficient gathering of information, but it is still not a perfect substitute
for browsing the shelves, where serendipitous discoveries can be made. Of course, the internet
does not make it faster to actually read books either.
There are other limitations of the internet that should be kept in mind. Reliability and
accuracy are key issues. For example, one of the most popular research sites is Wikipedia, the
free encyclopedia. Wikpedia is an excellent starting place for information, but because there is
limited oversight on the site, inaccurate or misleading information is sometimes included on
Wikpedia. It is therefore critical always to evaluate where information is coming from to
weigh accuracy, bias, point of view, etc. If you determine if a source has a strong point of view
or bias, this does not always mean that the information is useless, rather it means that these
biases need to be taken into account. Another limitation of the internet is its commercial nature.
An internet search will nearly always result with some advertising. Often these sites are
sponsored, meaning that they have paid to have there name appear on your screen. It is good
practice to experiment with different search engines, even if you have a favorite. For example,
if you use mostly use Google, you may also want to try Ask.com or another search engine once
in a while. Despite these limitations, the internet remains a powerful tool, but it is only one of
many research tools.
4
A Note on the Footnotes
This book includes footnotes as one would find in an historical journal or scholarly
monograph. There are two reasons for this. First, the notes are included so that the reader can
easily see where cited information came from. In some cases, explanatory notes are also
included to provide the reader additional information. Second, notes are included to familiarize
students with the practice of noting and citing in history as a discipline. The style of notation
followed is from the Chicago Manual of Style, also known as Turabian, which is standard
practice for historians in North America. As you proceed with you collegiate career, you will
discover that different disciplines follow different system for scholarly notations. For example,
in English courses you will likely use the Modern Language Association (or MLA) style of
notation. If you are taking courses in Psychology or Education, you may encounter a style of
notation from the American Psychological Association (APA). What they all have in common
is an emphasis on giving proper credit where it is due and easing the life of the reader by
pointing him or her to sources and valuable information. It is generally not necessary to read all
of the notes. Over time, you will learn to read only those notes that are relevant to your
purpose. If you have never worked with footnotes (or endnotes) before, you should begin by
reading all of them until you begin to become familiar with how notes work.
5
Part I
Before Civilization
6
Cave Paintings: Early Human Art
The art historian E.H. Gombrich wrote “If we take art to mean such activities as
building temples and houses, making pictures and sculptures, or weaving patterns, there is no
people in all the world without art. If, on the other hand, we mean by art some kind of beautiful
luxury, something to enjoy in museums and exhibitions or something special to use as a
precious decoration in the best parlors, we must realize that this use of the word is a very recent
development….”1 Gombrich goes on to explain that earlier humans viewed art as purposeful. It
was for something other than just aesthetic pleasure. This in no way detracts from the
achievement of early art, so we will stick with the broad definition of art, because creating art
is a defining human characteristic.
The Stone Age refers to the time when humans were limited to stone tools. The exact
period of the Stone Age then varies in different parts of the world, depending on when humans
developed technology to work with metal. Human activities were clearly more limited before
the age of metal, but one thing stone age people had in common with later more
technologically advanced humans was the desire to create art. One of the most famous and
studied examples of early human art are the Lascaux Paintings in France. Here artisits used
outlines and then filled them in with brown, black, yellow, and red pigment. The paintings
include a few human stick figures and numerous animals including, horses, reindeer, and
bulls.2
Research and Discussion Question
1. Describe and the explain the significance in terms of material culture of two of the
following examples of early human art: the Venus of Willendorf in Austria, Altamira cave
paintings in Spain, Cueva de las Manos in Argentina, Coldstream Burial Stone in South
Africa, Cosquer and Chauvet caves in France, Arnhem Land, Mt. Borradaile area in
Australia, and Marang Mountains of eastern Borneo, Indonesia.
1 E.H. Gombrich, The Story of Art, 16th ed.
(New York: Phaidon, 1994), 37.
2 See Laurie Schneider Adams, Art Across Time: Volume I, Prehistory fo the
Fourteenth Century (Boston:
McGraw-Hill, 1999), 25-40 and 10,000 Years of Art (New York: Phaidon, 2009), 4-5, Johannes Maringer and
Hans-Georg Bondi, trans. Robert Allen, Art in the Ice Age: Spanish Levant Art. Arctic Art (New York: Prager,
1953), André Leroi-Gourhan, Préhistoire de L’Art Occidental (Paris: Éditions d”Art Lucien Mazenod, 1971).
Also see the Werner Herzog film “Cave of Forgotten Dreams.”
7
Aboriginal wall paintings. Northern Australia. I-Stock photo.
8
Stonehenge
Stonehenge is on the Salisbury plain in England, four kilomenters west of Amesbury. Perhaps
the most iconic archeological site in Britain, it has been widely studied. Yet, much about
Stonehenge remains unknown. Three major periods of construction span around 1,500 years of
importance for the site, before it fell into disrepair after apparently losing its significance to the
people.
Stonehenge I was built around 2950 BCE. It included a cicular earthwork 97 meters in
diameter with entrances to the northeast, south, and southwest. Fifty-six surviving holes were
likely used to hold timbers. Stonehenge II was built from 2900 to 2400 BCE with new timbers
in the northeast and central areas of the circle. Stonehenge III, from 2500 to 1600 BCE witness
ed a number of individual subphases. Around 2500 BCE two concentric circles of bluestone
pillars were erected. These were imported from the Presley mountains in Wales. Additional
stones were also added to the exterior at this time to mark astronimical events, in partiular the
rising of the midsummer sun in the northeast. This configuration did not last long and was
replaced by a new phase which involved major additions. Five large trilithons were built in a
horseshoe pattern in the center with the opening facing the midsummer rising sun. Around this
central horseshoe, the people erected thirty upright blocks and rearranged the bluestones.
It is clear that during its 1,500 years of use the layout was related first to lunar and then
solar cycles and it is certain that, in the end, Stonehenge marked the rise of the midummer sun.
But what exactly was the Stonehenge for? Archeologists are not sure. Questions about
Stonehenge become even more complex when it is studied in the context of surrounding sites.3
Research and Discussion Questions
1. What are some of the theories about the meaning of Stonehenge?
2. Describe the significance (location, when built, meaning) of the one of the following:
Gobekli Tepe in Turkey, Medicine Wheel, Wyoming, USA. Is there a thematic link between
this site and Stonehenge?
3 Timothy Darvill, Paul Stamper, and Jane Timby, England: An Oxford Archaeological Guide to Sites from
Earliest Times to AD 1600 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 414-418.
9
Stonehenge. I-Stock photo.
10
Ötzi and the Copper Age
In September 1991 two German hikers came upon a frozen corpse in the Ötztal Alps.
After authorities were notified it soon became clear that the body was very old. Initially, the
Iceman was flown to Innsbruck, Austria for study, but when it was determined that “Ötzi,” had
been on the Italian side of the border when found, he was sent to Bolzano, Italy in the South
Tyrol.
Ötzi lived sometime between 3350-3150 BCE. He was around 45 years old when he
died. His body had numerous tatoos made of charcoal. The tatoos were on parts of the body
where he would have suffered physical strain, so it is believed that the tatoos were therapeutic
in nature and not decorative. In July 2001, new X-Rays showed an arrow lodged in his
shoulder. A new level of mystery was added to the story of Ötzi as it was clear that he had been
murdered. The drama of his story has added to the fascination with Ötzi. Overall, the Iceman
has increased our knowledge of the material culture of Copper Age people in Alpine Europe.
Ötzi’s clothes included leggings, a loin cloth, and a coat made of tanned goat hide. He
also had shoes made of deer and bearskin with grass netting, a belt and pouch made of calf
leather, and a bearskin cap. His material belongings included a copper-bladed axe, a dagger
with a flint blade and an ash wood handle, a retoucheur (a tool for working with flint), a bow
made from yew wood, a quiver with a chamois hide, two arrows, twelve arrow shafts, a
backpack with a wood frame and a hunting net made of tree fiber. He also had birch bark
containers, a small first-aid kit and a white marble disc of unknown function.
Ötzi’s equipment was made of eighteen different kinds of wood, which indicates that he
and his people has specialized knowledge of natural materials. His copper axe in particular was
of great value and would have symbolized some level of wealth and prestige. Archeologists
believe that Ötzi was part of the Alpine cultural group Tamins-Carosso-Isera 5, which lived
south of the Alps. Their copper age settlements were made of several households with regional
assembly sites. In their religion, grave sites were important along with holy sites marked by tall
upright stones called menhirs. Here burnt objects flint carvings were offereed to spirits.4
Research and Discussion Questions
1. How was Ötzi mummified?
2. What objects were traded and how did trade function in the Alpine Copper Age?
3. What kind of crops were grown and what kinds of animals were raised in the Alpine Copper
Age.
4 Summarized from Angelika Fleckinger, Ötzi, the Iceman: The Full Facts at a Glance (Folio: Bolzano, 2011).
Also see www.iceman.it
11
Part II
Early Civilizations
Babylonian Snake Dragon. Detroit Institute of Arts
12
Walls of Uruk
“Who built the walls.” This phrase bookends the earliest literature known, The Epic of
Gilgamesh. The perhaps mythical king Gilgamesh is credited with building the walls of Uruk.
Uruk, along with Ur, Lagahsh, and others are among the oldest cities. The walls of Uruk
protected the city and its temple, including the best-known zigguarat dedicated to Inanna or
Ishtar. A zigguarat is a step pyramid design unique to Mesopotamia. Walled cities were first
build in Mesopotamia and became common in many different civilizations. As a work of
monumental building, walls represented major investments of public resources and were built
for security. They can be interpreted simultaneously as symbols of strength and fear.5
Research and Discussion Questions
1. Explain the scale of Uruk and its walls. What kinds of materials were used in building the
walls and temples?
2. Describe the major architectural features of the temple to Inanna in Uruk.
5 See Pierre Amiet, trans. John Shepley and Clause Choquet, Art of the Ancient Near East (New York: Abrams,
1980) and Eva Strommenger, trans. Christina Haglund, 500 Years of the Art of Mesopotamia (New York: Abrams).
13
Stele of Hammurabi’s Code
The law code of Hammurabi is one of several such Mesopotamian codes which has
survived. The document is a valuable window into daily life in ancient Babylon as the code
deals with issues ranging from marriage and family to medical malpractice to treason. The
code also reveals how social status functioned in Mesopotamia. The stele on which the code
was published also gives us insight to Mesopotamian material culture. The 7’ 5” stele, made of
basalt, depicts the king seated before a god. The law then is spelled out in cuneiform below.6
Research and Discussion
1. Give another example of how symbols and/or material culture are used to enhance the
majesty and power of the law.
2. Give at least three examples from the Code of Hammurabi and explain what they tell us
about Mesopotamian culture.
6 Eva Strommenger, trans. Christina Haglund, 500 Years of the Art of Mesopotamia (New York: Abrams), plates
158-159.
14
15
Egyptian Pyramids
The pyramids of Egypt are among the most well known sites in the world. These
towering structures were named by the Greeks who were reminded of their own pyramid
shaped cakes. For the Egyptians, they were a massive investment in time and resources. Why
did they build them? The pyramids were tombs for the pharaohs and are therefore directly
linked to the Egyptian religion and the importance of the afterlife. The first major pyramid was
the step pyramid designed for King Zoser by his architect Imhotep (who was later deified).
Later in the Old Kingdom period, geometric pyramids were built. In all, around eighty
pyramids were constructed, the largest of which was the Khufu pyramid.
Egyptian pyramids were remarkable feats of engineering and labor organization. For
example, the Khufu pyramid required the cutting, moving, and assembling of some 2.3 million
stone blocks averaging 2.3 tons. All of the pyramid projects required the massive mobilization
of labor. One of the most persistent myths about the pyramids and Egypt in general is that the
16
pharaohs relied heavily on slave labor. This notion came from the Greek historian Herodotus
and became embedded in our understanding of the Egyptians .7
The 1950s advertisement for Tennessee Gas (see below) made use of this popular idea.
Today Egypt experts believe that slavery was practiced only in the New Kingdom period and
not in the Old Kingdom period when the pyramids were built. This leaves the question of how
the labor force was mobilized. Scholars point to three main answers to this question. First,
mobilizing the labor force was practical due to the predicable flood cycle of the Nile and
Egypt’s rich agricultural surplus. This meant that after planting and after harvest there were
windows of time when labor could be devoted to monumental building projects. Second, the
workers were motivated by their religious convictions. Third, the labor force was well-fed and
generally treated well. Yet if we know the pyramids were not built by slave labor, we are left
with a philosophical question about material culture and political/religious power. Why were
so many resources devoted to the tomb of the one god/king? As commentator Michael Wood
phrased it, why in the bronze age, did “the many surrender power to the few?”8
Research and Discussion Questions
1. Engineering and Material Culture: How were the pyramids geographically oriented? What
kinds of tools were used? How were blocks of stone moved?
2. Memory and Myth: In addition to the myth of slavery (discussed above) another myth of the
pyramids is that were not built by the Egyptians. Why would this idea persist despite the
ample evidence to the contrary? How might a contemporary Egyptian react to this notion?
3. Explain the significance and meaning of two of the following examples of Egyptian material
culture: the Sphinx, the Ramesseum at Thebes, Abu Sibel in Nubia.
7 See Lorna Oakes and Lucia Gahlin, Ancient Egypt: An Illustrated Reference to the Myths, Religions, Pyramids,
and Temples of the Land of the Pharaohs (New York: Hermes, 2002), 66-71, Robert Strassler, ed., The Landmark
Herodutus: The Histories, trans. Andrea Purvis (New York: Anchor, 2007), and Laurie Schneider Adams, Art
Across Time: Volume I, Prehistory to the Fourteenth Century (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1999), 85-88.
8 Michael Wood, “Legacy: The Habit of Civilization,” 1991.
Virginia Morell, “The Pyramid Builders,” National
Geographic (November 2001), 78-99. For additional sources on ancient Egypt see T.G. H. James, Pharaoh’s
People: Scenes from Life in Imperial Egypt (London, 1984) and Barry J. Kemp, Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a
Civilization (New York, 2006).
17
18
King Tut’s Tomb
The story of King Tutankhamun’s tomb begins with his father Amenhotep IV who
broke dramatically from Egyptian religious tradition by centering worship solely on the Aten
or solar disk. Amenhotep IV then renamed himself Akhenaten and build at new capital in
Middle Egypt named Akhetaten, now known as Amarna, where he ruled with his chief wife
Nefertiti. The Amara period not only broke with religious tradition, but also with artistic
tradition as naturalism (a more realistic depiction of humans) was adopted in sculpture and
poetry. The religious changes did not outlive Akhenaten, who died around 1336 BC. His heir,
Tutankhaten assumed the throne as a child overseen by a regent. The new capital was
abandoned along with the new temples and Tutankhaten’s name was changed to Tutankhamun.
Only ten years into his reign, around the age of seventeen, the boy king died.9
Given his short reign and minor significance, why did “King Tut” become one the most
recognizable symbols of ancient Egypt? First, was his status as a benchmark figure in the
tumultuous Amara period. Second, was the discovery of mostly-intact tomb in 1922 by Howard
Carter. This find became a sensation in Egyptology, prompting renewed interest in ancient
Egypt. The Western fascination with ancient Egypt began with Napoleon’s Egyptian campaign
in 1798.10 It is safe to say that Egypt comes to mind first for most people when they think of
archeology.
Research and Discussion Questions
1. Explain the significance of three or more objects found in King Tutankhamun’s tomb.
2. The series Description of Egypt was published between 1809 and 1822. How did it come
about and what was significant about it?
3. How would you interpret a mummy as an object of material culture?
9 Jason Thompson, A History of Egypt: From Earliest Times to the Present (New York: Anchor, 2009), 70-75.
10 Françoise Dunand and Roger Lichtenberg, Mummies: A Voyage Through Eternity, trans. Ruth Sharman (New
York: Harry Abrams), 14-15.
19
Mohenjo-Daro
Indus Valley Civilization thrived between 2600 and 1900 BCE. The two major sites
along the river are Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Mohenjo-Daro at its height was between 6-7
square miles. Surviving parts of the city include a citadel surrounded by a high wall and a large
water tank. The people used fired bricks and laid out their city in a grid pattern. The site
includes several two-story homes with a bathing area. Homes were linked into a citywide
drainage system.
Overall, scholars know very little about the Indus Valley compared to its
contemporaries. The language of the Indo-Aryans has not been deciphered and only a few of
the more than 1,500 known settlements have been excavated.11
Research and Discussion Questions
1. An important surviving example of Indus Valley Civilization material culture are the more
than 200 seals that have been found. Find two or more examples of the seals and interpret
them as objects of material culture.
2. Find an image of the “priest king” statue housed at the National Museum of Pakistan in
Karachi and interpret the statue as an object of material culture.
3. What geopolitical factors might account for our lack of knowledge about Indus Valley
Civilization compared to other ancient civilizations such as Egypt and China.
11 See Joan Aruz, Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium BC from the Mediterranean to the Indus (New
York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2003), 376-413 and Marilyn Stokstand, Art History, 3rd ed. (Upper Saddle
River, N.J: Prentice Hall, 2008).
20
Meröe and Iron
Meröe was the center of civilization in ancient Nubia, which is in modern Sudan.
Egyptian civilization strongly influenced Nubia, also known as Kush. In turn, Kush made its
mark on Egypt, especially beginning 730 BCE when for over sixty years Kush controlled
Egypt directly. Connections with Egypt, proximity to the Red Sea, and a general prosperity in
the Mediterranean provided demand for iron goods from Meröe.
Iron goods were one of the most important aspects of the material culture of Meröe.
Meröe had iron ore and nearby hardwood forests for making the charcoal that was needed to
fire the furnaces. Archeologists have found farming tools, carpentry tools, and weapons made
of iron from Meröe. Possession and trade of iron weapons made Meröe a regional power, but
in the second century C.E. the civilization collapsed. Among the ruins of Meröe today are
numerous small-scale pyramids and slag heaps from iron production.12
Research and Discussion Questions
1. How is charcoal made?
2. How did charcoal production play a role in the ultimate collapse of Meröe?
12 John Reader, Africa: A Biography of a Continent (New York: Vintage, 1997), 197-199.
21
Meröe. I-Stock photo.
22
Hindu Temple
Because Hindu temples were places where gods resided, elaborate preparations for the
building site were required and architects were greatly esteemed. Crops were planted and
harvested for two seasons and cows pastured on a site before building could begin. Hindu
temples follow a plan called the mandala. A square, subdivided into further squares is the key
design theme. At the center is a chamber without windows called the garbhagriha or “womb
chamber.” Here is where the image of a particular Hindu God is housed. Stone, wood, and
bronze are all commonly used. The surrounding squares house other gods and protectors.
Hindu temples are for individual worship, where believers typically leave offerings
such as flowers, food, water, milk, oil, and so on. There is a vast number of Hindu gods and
numerous regional variations in temple style. Art historians generally distinguish between the
northern style, known for its top curving inward culminating in a spire, and the southern style,
which is crowned by a pyramidal tower. Despite these differences the basic design of the
mandala provides a common and unifying experience for Hindus.13
Research and Discussion Questions
1. Find three or four examples of Hindu temples built before 1500. Who were the temples
dedicated to? Which architectural styles do the temples represent?
13 See Marilyn Stokstad, Art History, 3rd ed.
(Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2008) and Partha Mitter,
Indian Art (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
23
Qin Emperor’s Tomb and Terracotta Soldiers
The Qin dynasty was a short-lived dynasty in early Chinese history. After a series of
wars to unite China, Yeng Zheng proclaimed himself the “first emperor” or Qin Shi Huangdi in
221 BCE. Dominated by Shi Huangdi, Chinese political philosophy veered away from
Confucianism and emphasized legalism and state power. Shihuangdi’s harsh policies and antiConfucian stance did not have lasting power after the fall of the Qin, but numerous reforms of
his reign had long-lasting impacts on Chinese civilization, including building fortifications on
the northern frontier, standardized coins, standardized writing, standardized weights and
measures, and a system of administrative districts.
The prime example of material culture from Shihuangdi’s reign, which also symbolized
his meglomania, is the army of life-size terracotta soldiers that make up his vast tomb complex.
In 1974, farmers stumbled upon terracotta pieces near Xian. This was the beginning of a
fantastic discovery of over 7,000 figures (with excavations still ongoing). Among the figures
are infantry, archers, and cavalry. The figures represent a combination of mass production
techniques and artistic skill and sensibility. Stock pieces were made from clay and then pieced
together to make the figures. Artisans then used layers of clay and paint to fashion individual
figures using live models. Hats, facial hair, shoes, and other details were added to make each
figure unique.
Research and Discussion Questions
1. Describe the location and scope of Shi Huangdi’s tomb complex.
2. How would you interpret the terracotta figures as objects of material culture? To what
extent is the voice of the artists present, give the vast number of soldiers and the overall size
of the tomb complex?
3. How do we explain a massive work of art that was not meant to be seen?
24
25
Terracotta soldier and horse. Photos by the author.
26
Buddhas of Bamiyan, Afghanistan
The Buddhas of Bamiyan are a site of material culture, a site of memory, and a site of
attempted forgetting. After Buddhism became an institutionalized religion, monumental
Buddhist art was embraced and spread throughout the Buddhist world. Caves, both natural and
carved by people, were often used as holy sites featuring sometimes massive statues of the
Buddha.
In Bamiyan, Afghanistan two such massive Buddhas were built. The smaller of the two,
named Shamama was 125 feet high and built around 507 C.E. Standing next to it was the 180foot Salsal built around 554. The crossroads of central Asia proved to be a difficult spot for the
Buddhas. When the Mongols swept through they fired canon at the Buddhas. When Islam came
to the region, some especially intolerant rulers such as the Indian, Mughal ruler Aurangzeb
ordered the Buddhas be vandalized. Yet, the Buddhas of Bamiyan survived until 2001, when
the Taliban “government” of Afghanistan ordered them destroyed. In March 2001 the Taliban
minister of information and culture informed reporters that his men were working hard on
demolition: “It is easier to destroy than to build.” Despite international outrage, the Buddhas
were destroyed.14
This destruction was an obvious attempt to erase a past that was unacceptable to the
Taliban rulers. But since the fall and tenacious return of the Taliban the memory of the
Buddhas has remained. As Roger Cohen wrote in the New York Times: “Absence is presence.
The visitor is drawn into the void as if summoned, not by vacancy, but by the towering
Buddhas themselves.”15
Research and Discussion Questions
1. How do you reconcile the monumental architecture dedicated to the Buddha to the life and
teachings of the Buddha?
2. Why would the culture and art of an earlier people become a target of contemporary rulers?
3. The German author Heinrich Heine remarked: “When they burn books, the will, in the end,
burn human beings.” Why might it be important to protect art, even if it is unpopular?
4. What plans are there for the Buddhas today?
14 Francis Wood, The Silk Road:
Press, 2002), 98-99.
T wo Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia (Berkeley: University of California
15 New York Times, 29 October 2007. Also see New York Times, 4 March 2001.
27
Bamiyan, Afghanistan, early 20002. i-Stock photo
28
Mesoamerica: Olmec Statues
Olmec comes from the Nahuatl meaning “rubber people.” The Olmecs were the best
known of the early Mesoamerican cultures. Located on the gulf coast of Mexico, there were
three major urban/ceremonial centers beginning with San Lorenzo around 1150 BCE followed
by San Lorenzo and La Venta. These centers went into decline around 400
