Description
This assignment will focus on introducing you to the question of human dignity and, in particular, the Christian perspective of the intrinsic worth and value of each person. You will have the opportunity to integrate this insight with scientific and philosophical approaches that inform judgements made in health care and contrast it with secular approaches to human value and worth. The logic of human rights will be made explicit as you engage with different concepts of “moral status.”
Based on your reading of the “Case Study: Fetal Abnormality” and topic Resources, complete the “Moral Status: Case Analysis” document in a maximum of 1,000-words, in which you will analyze the case study in relation to the following:
Christian view of the nature of human persons, theory of moral status, intrinsic human value, and dignity
Theory or theories used by individuals in the case to determine the moral status
How each theory used determines or influences recommendations for action
Moral status theory personal response
Integration of knowledge in health care (theories, multiple ways of knowing, evidence) and knowledge from other disciplines inform and support current or future professional health care practices and judgements
Support your response using only Chapter 2 from the textbook Practicing Dignity: An Introduction to Christian Values and Decision-Making in Health Care and the Topic 2 Resource “The Image of God, Bioethics, and Persons With Profound Intellectual Disabilities.”
While APA style is not required for the body of this assignment, solid academic writing is expected, and documentation of sources should be presented using APA formatting guidelines, which can be found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center.
This assignment uses a rubric. Please review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the expectations for successful completion.
You are required to submit this assignment to LopesWrite. A link to the LopesWrite technical support articles is located in Class Resources if you need assistance.
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Worldview Analysis and Personal Inventory
After reading the topic Resources, respond to the following, using only citations from the
topic Resources:
1. Based on the topic Resources, in 250-300 words, explain the Christian perspective of the
nature of spirituality and ethics.
2. Based on the topic Resources, in 250-300 words, explain the term scientism and describe
two of the main arguments against it.
3. Respond to each of the worldview prompts according to your personal worldview, or
“your own personal beliefs that comprise your worldview.”
a. In 125-150 words, explain ultimate reality.
b. In 125-150 words, explain the nature (origin) of the universe.
c. In 125-150 words, explain what it means to be a human being and if there is purpose
in human life and existence.
d. In 125-150 words, explain what knowledge is and what the sources of knowledge are.
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e. In 125-150 words, explain ethics and where the knowledge of right and wrong comes
from.
f. In 125-150 words, explain the purpose of your life and existence.
4. In 125-150 words, explain the influence of your personal worldview values in decisionmaking within current or future professional practice.
References
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Worldview Analysis and Personal Inventory – Rubric
1. Christian Perspective of the Nature of Spirituality and Ethics
25 points
Criteria Description
Explanation of the Christian perspective of the nature of spirituality and ethics
5. Target
25 points
Explanation of the Christian perspective of the nature of spirituality and ethics
demonstrates a thorough, concise, and exceptional understanding of the concepts.
Explanation is supported with references to relevant textbook chapter and topic
Resources.
4. Acceptable
21.25 points
Explanation of the Christian perspective of the nature of spirituality and ethics
demonstrates a clear understanding extending beyond the surface of the concepts.
Explanation is supported with references to relevant textbook chapter and topic
Resources.
3. Approaching
18.75 points
Explanation of the Christian perspective of the nature of spirituality and ethics
demonstrates a basic understanding of the concepts. Explanation is supported with
references to relevant textbook chapter and topic Resources.
2. Insufficient
16.25 points
Explanation of the Christian perspective of the nature of spirituality and ethics is a
copy of information from the textbook chapter and topic Resources that
demonstrates a poor understanding of the concepts.
1. Unsatisfactory
0 points
Explanation of the Christian perspective of the nature of spirituality and ethics does
not demonstrate knowledge of the concepts as presented in the textbook chapter
and topic Resources or explanation is not provided.
© 2024. Grand Canyon University. All Rights Reserved.
2. Scientism and Arguments
25 points
Criteria Description
Explanation of scientism and description of two main arguments against scientism
5. Target
25 points
Explanation of scientism and description of two main arguments against scientism
demonstrate a thorough, concise, and exceptional understanding of the concepts.
Explanation is supported with references to relevant textbook chapter and topic
Resources.
4. Acceptable
21.25 points
Explanation of scientism and description of two main arguments against scientism
demonstrate a clear understanding extending beyond the surface of the concepts.
Explanation is supported with references to relevant textbook chapter and topic
Resources.
3. Approaching
18.75 points
Explanation of scientism and description of two main arguments against scientism
demonstrate a basic understanding of the concepts. Explanation is supported with
references to relevant textbook chapter and topic Resources.
2. Insufficient
16.25 points
Explanation of scientism and description of two main arguments against scientism
are a copy of information from the textbook chapter and topic Resources that
demonstrates a poor understanding of the concepts.
1. Unsatisfactory
0 points
Explanation of scientism and description of two main arguments against scientism
do not demonstrate knowledge of the concepts as presented in the textbook
chapter and topic Resources or explanation is not provided.
© 2024. Grand Canyon University. All Rights Reserved.
3. a. Personal Worldview – Ultimate Reality
5 points
Criteria Description
Explanation of ultimate reality
5. Target
5 points
Explanation demonstrates a thorough, concise, and exceptional understanding of
ultimate reality.
4. Acceptable
4.25 points
Explanation demonstrates a deep understanding of ultimate reality.
3. Approaching
3.75 points
Explanation demonstrates a basic understanding of ultimate reality.
2. Insufficient
3.25 points
Explanation demonstrates poor understanding of ultimate reality.
1. Unsatisfactory
0 points
Explanation does not demonstrate an understanding of ultimate reality or
explanation is not provided.
© 2024. Grand Canyon University. All Rights Reserved.
3. b. Personal Worldview – Nature (Origin) of the Universe
5 points
Criteria Description
Explanation of the nature (origin) of the universe
5. Target
5 points
Explanation demonstrates an exceptional understanding of the nature (origin) of
the universe.
4. Acceptable
4.25 points
Explanation demonstrates a deep understanding of the nature (origin) of the
universe.
3. Approaching
3.75 points
Explanation demonstrates a basic understanding of the nature (origin) of the
universe.
2. Insufficient
3.25 points
Explanation demonstrates poor understanding of the nature (origin) of the
universe.
1. Unsatisfactory
0 points
Explanation does not demonstrate an understanding of the nature (origin) of the
universe or explanation is not provided.
© 2024. Grand Canyon University. All Rights Reserved.
3. c. Personal Worldview – What It Means to Be a Human Being
5 points
Criteria Description
Explanation of what it means to be a human being and if there is purpose in human
life and existence
5. Target
5 points
Explanation demonstrates an exceptional understanding of what it means to be a
human being and if there is purpose in human life and existence.
4. Acceptable
4.25 points
Explanation demonstrates a deep understanding of what it means to be a human
being and if there is purpose in human life and existence.
3. Approaching
3.75 points
Explanation demonstrates a basic understanding of what it means to be a human
being and if there is purpose in human life and existence.
2. Insufficient
3.25 points
Explanation demonstrates poor understanding of what it means to be a human
being and if there is purpose in human life and existence.
1. Unsatisfactory
0 points
Explanation does not demonstrate an understanding of what it means to be a
human being and if there is purpose in human life and existence or explanation is
not provided.
© 2024. Grand Canyon University. All Rights Reserved.
3. e. Personal Worldview – What Knowledge Is
5 points
Criteria Description
Explanation of what knowledge is and what the sources of knowledge are
5. Target
5 points
Explanation demonstrates an exceptional understanding of what knowledge is and
what the sources of knowledge are.
4. Acceptable
4.25 points
Explanation demonstrates a deep understanding of what knowledge is and what
the sources of knowledge are.
3. Approaching
3.75 points
Explanation demonstrates a basic understanding of what knowledge is and what
the sources of knowledge are.
2. Insufficient
3.25 points
Explanation demonstrates poor understanding of what knowledge is and what the
sources of knowledge are.
1. Unsatisfactory
0 points
Explanation does not demonstrate an understanding of what knowledge is and
what the sources of knowledge are or explanation is not provided.
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3. e. Personal Worldview – Ethics, Right, and Wrong
5 points
Criteria Description
Explanation of ethics and where the knowledge of right and wrong comes from
5. Target
5 points
Explanation of ethics and where the knowledge of right and wrong comes from
demonstrates an exceptional understanding of the related concepts.
4. Acceptable
4.25 points
Explanation of ethics and where the knowledge of right and wrong comes from
demonstrates a deep understanding of the related concepts.
3. Approaching
3.75 points
Explanation of ethics and where the knowledge of right and wrong comes from
demonstrates a basic understanding of the related concepts.
2. Insufficient
3.25 points
Explanation of ethics and where the knowledge of right and wrong comes from
demonstrates poor understanding of the related concepts.
1. Unsatisfactory
0 points
Explanation of ethics and where the knowledge of right and wrong comes from
does not demonstrate an understanding of the related concepts or explanation is
not provided.
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3. f. Personal Worldview – Purpose of Personal Human Life and Existence
Criteria Description
Explanation of the purpose of personal human life and existence
5. Target
5 points
Explanation demonstrates an exceptional understanding of the purpose of personal
human life and existence.
4. Acceptable
4.25 points
Explanation demonstrates a deep understanding of the purpose of personal human
life and existence.
3. Approaching
3.75 points
Explanation demonstrates a basic understanding of the purpose of personal human
life and existence.
2. Insufficient
3.25 points
Explanation demonstrates poor understanding of the purpose of personal human
life and existence.
1. Unsatisfactory
0 points
Explanation does not demonstrate an understanding of the purpose of personal
human life and existence, or explanation is not provided.
© 2024. Grand Canyon University. All Rights Reserved.
5 points
4. Professional Practice
10 points
Criteria Description
Explanation of the influence of personal worldview values in decision-making within
current or future professional practice
5. Target
10 points
Explanation demonstrates an exceptional understanding of the influence of
personal worldview values in decision-making within current or future professional
practice.
4. Acceptable
8.5 points
Explanation demonstrates a deep understanding of the influence of personal
worldview values in decision-making within current or future professional practice.
3. Approaching
7.5 points
Explanation demonstrates a basic understanding of the influence of personal
worldview values in decision-making within current or future professional practice.
2. Insufficient
6.5 points
Explanation demonstrates poor understanding of the influence of personal
worldview values in decision-making within current or future professional practice.
1. Unsatisfactory
0 points
Explanation does not demonstrate an understanding of the influence of personal
worldview values in decision-making within current or future professional practice,
or explanation is not provided.
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Mechanics of Writing
6 points
Criteria Description
Includes spelling, capitalization, punctuation, grammar, language use, sentence
structure, etc.
5. Target
6 points
No mechanical errors are present. Appropriate language choice and sentence
structure are used throughout.
4. Acceptable
5.1 points
Few mechanical errors are present. Suitable language choice and sentence
structure are used.
3. Approaching
4.5 points
Occasional mechanical errors are present. Language choice is generally
appropriate. Varied sentence structure is attempted.
2. Insufficient
3.9 points
Frequent and repetitive mechanical errors are present. Inconsistencies in language
choice or sentence structure are recurrent.
1. Unsatisfactory
0 points
Errors in grammar or syntax are pervasive and impede meaning. Incorrect language
choice or sentence structure errors are found throughout.
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Format/Documentation
4 points
Criteria Description
Uses appropriate style, such as APA, MLA, etc., for college, subject, and level;
documents sources using citations, footnotes, references, bibliography, etc.,
appropriate to assignment and discipline.
5. Target
4 points
No errors in formatting or documentation are present.
4. Acceptable
3.4 points
Appropriate format and documentation are used with only minor errors.
3. Approaching
3 points
Appropriate format and documentation are used, although there are some obvious
errors.
2. Insufficient
2.6 points
Appropriate format is attempted, but some elements are missing. Frequent errors
in documentation of sources are evident.
1. Unsatisfactory
0 points
Appropriate format is not used. No documentation of sources is provided.
Total 100 points
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an being has intrinsic worth and is to be valued because each one is human without
consideration for level of functionality or benefit provided to others.
Intrinsic Value
The starting point of Christian understanding of human beings is God and what God says
about humanity, not what human beings perceive in themselves or other members of the
human race. According to the Christian worldview, human perception of the world is
tainted and imperfect because of the effects of sin and a limited finite viewpoint: human
beliefs regarding the value of a particular individual are not the last word. For Christians,
God as the Creator has the last word regarding the worth of each human being, and God
has already spoken regarding each one, making clear that each has intrinsic worth
because each is created by God and bears God’s image. As caretakers of the world, they
all share in God’s creative vision of the world. Thus, human beings are to honor and
respect all aspects of creation.
Equal Wor th
Because all human beings are made in the image of God, all human beings have equal
worth, regardless of physical or mental ability, status of development, race, sex,
educational level, or any other differentiation. In the Christian vision of the world, the
image of God is the basis for equal worth of human beings as well as for human rights.
Though common in Western society today, the idea of inherent human rights that
assumes equal worth and inherent dignity has not been the norm throughout history. One
only has to look at the way many Romans treated women and slaves in the first century or
any number of caste systems throughout history to realize that human beings are more
prone to exclude and divide than unite.
This was a significant part of the appeal and growth of the Christian faith in the early
centuries. If all human beings have inherent worth and are of equal value, then they should
all be treated the same—with dignity and respect. This is why, in contrast to the norms of
Roman society, early Christians took in and adopted babies who were left to die exposed
on the rocks. It is why women and slaves were given equal status within the early church.
It is why early Christians were at the forefront of medical care as those who created
hospitals and pioneered medical care for those without money or means of payment. In
this, they were imitating Jesus’s parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 15). If the equal
worth of human beings extends to all members of the human race, how much more
should equal worth be given to all who have been unified by faith in Christ? The Apostle
Paul put it this way: “There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is
no male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Galatians 3:28).
Moral Status According to The Bible
According to a Christian view of human beings, moral status is afforded to all human
beings, regardless of any other criteria. This dignity is reminiscent of the psalmist’s
declaration, “I praise you, for I am fearfully and wonderfully made” (Psalm 139:14a). The
Christian viewpoint is most in accordance with the moral status theory based on human
properties, which likewise recognizes inherent worth in every member of the human race.
Similarly, in a Christian understanding, moral status is a gracious gift extended to every
member of the human family because of his or her existence as a unique creation of God.
Jesus Christ and Human Wor th
For Christians, an additional consideration beyond the imago Dei leads them to consider
human beings as being worthy of value: the incarnation of Jesus Christ. Christians believe
that God became human in Jesus Christ, who is both fully divine and fully human.
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Theologians have termed this mystery the hypostatic union. By becoming human and
dying for the sins of fallen humanity, Jesus demonstrated that humankind is of supreme
value—valuable enough for God to become human and die for their sake.
Because of the fall of humanity, the image of God within humankind had been marred and
damaged. Jesus Christ came to save and heal humanity from their sin and restore what
had been broken. Jesus is the “new Adam” (Romans 5:17–18) who was faithful, whereas
the first Adam—from the biblical account in the book of Genesis—had failed. Now, as Paul
says, a Christian is God’s adopted child as he or she “becomes one spirit with him” (1
Corinthians 6:17), transformed into his image. According to Paul, “For all who are led by
the Spirit of God are sons [this infers daughters as well] of God” (Romans 8:14). The Spirit
himself bears witness with Christians’ spirits that they are children of God (Romans 8:16).
For Christians, Jesus Christ is the ultimate and essential definition of personhood, or as
theologian Dietrich Bonhoeffer (2005) put it, “To be conformed to the one who has
become human, that is what being human really means” (p. 94).
This also has implications for nursing care. Many nurses enter this profession knowing
that their labors influence not only the patient they are caring for, but in serving, they also
minister to the Son of Man, Jesus Christ. Jesus taught that, in a mysterious way, by caring
for those who are most in need, his followers are caring for Jesus:
Then the King will say to those on his right, “Come, you who are blessed by my
Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world. For I
was hungry and you gave me food, I was thirsty and you gave me drink, I was a
stranger and you welcomed me, I was naked and you clothed me, I was sick and
you visited me, I was in prison and you came to me.” Then the righteous will answer
him, saying, “Lord, when did we see you hungry and feed you, or thirsty and give
you drink? And when did we see you a stranger and welcome you, or naked and
clothe you? And when did we see you sick or in prison and visit you?” And the King
will answer them, “Truly, I say to you, as you did it to one of the least of these my
brothers, you did it to me.” (Matthew 25:34–40)
Many nurses are enacting this Scripture in the most literal and caring way, “I was sick and
you visited me” (Matthew 25:34). When they minister to the least of these, they minister to
Jesus Christ.
Christian Reflections
The Christian vision of humanity has significant implications for how human beings are to
be treated, including within the realm of medicine. These implications are wide ranging,
extending from how health professionals ought to approach the task of medicine itself,
including approaches to patient care that see the patient as a person possessing inherent
worth and value rather than simply a number or a body, to suggesting ways to view
important, current-day medical issues.
Disability
Contemporary society seems to prize individuals based upon their abilities. Those who are
stronger, faster, smarter, or better at accomplishing certain tasks, such as shooting a ball
through a hoop or singing, are assumed to have more worth than others. In recent years,
some opposition to these assessments has begun, with many prizing the underdog, the
powerless, and those with less ability. This has, at times, included championing those with
physical, psychological, and emotional disabilities; however, a potential problem arises in
both of these approaches because they both use the same logic for determining the worth
of a human being: both rely on extrinsic means of valuation.
The point is that, for both approaches, the value of persons remains dependent upon
ability, whether desirable or not. Any view that assigns human values based on functional
ability rejects a genuine equality of worth among persons; there will always be someone
faster, stronger, smarter, or richer. For example, take the implicit reasoning behind fetal
testing for birth defects, as well as the movement toward so-called designer babies. This
testing is not necessarily in itself a problem, but the implicit values behind it can be. If the
reasoning for doing this testing is that a child with what some may perceive as defects is
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neither worthy of celebration nor perhaps even life, then from a Christian worldview, this is
not to be accepted (Rae, 2018, p. 205).
In opposition to the tendency to judge the worth of human beings by their level of ability,
whether considered positively or negatively, Christianity affirms the value and dignity of all
human beings, regardless of perceived ability or defect. This is why Christians ought to be
at the forefront of celebrating and caring for all people and especially for those who are
disabled. Indeed, this has been the case throughout history.
Care for the Disabled
In the modern era, care for significantly disabled individuals has moved out of the
context of the family to institutional care, and a number of individuals began to see
the need for specialized care that embraced those with disabilities as valuable
members of the human race. One such individual was Henri Nouwen, who left a
position teaching theology at Harvard Divinity School to live in a community where
he cared for significantly disabled persons (O’Laughlin, 2005).
Another example is Jean Vanier, who founded the community of L’Arche to embrace
and honor the dignity of those with disabilities (Vanier, 1995). Each saw something
inherently valuable in persons with disabilities—a value that was not being
recognized in modern Western culture but from which they learned much about
what it means to be human. These considerations are especially important because
a growing concern for many is caring for individuals with neurodegenerative
diseases such as dementia.
John Swinton is a psychiatric nurse and theologian who has reflected extensively
on the need to see the image of God in these individuals who suffer from such
terrible diseases. He contends that we can learn much about what it means to be
human and about how to relate to God as human beings from individuals with
disabilities (Swinton, 2012; Swinton, 2016).
Abor tion
The Christian Scriptures provide a consistent account of the worth of human beings from
conception onward (Rae, 2018). From the very beginning of Christianity, Christians have
opposed infanticide and the killing of unwanted children. In Roman society, it was
common to expose unwanted children to the elements, leaving them in the open
countryside to die. Many of these children were female and undesired because of their
gender. Early Christians would often search for these children, adopt, and raise them as
their own (Rae, 2018). The beliefs of the Christians regarding the sanctity of human life
led to practical and costly actions.
Similarly, in the modern era, Christians have often been those individuals most opposed to
abortion, which they view as the killing of unborn children. This is based upon the core
Christian belief that all human beings have innate worth because each is made in the
image of God. Thus, all human beings, no matter the stage of development—be they
young or old—are to be treated with respect and their lives valued rather than discarded.
Abortion is a divisive and complex issue. There are many issues at stake, including the
autonomy of the mother and the father—whose rights are often not considered—medical
outcomes pertaining to the mother’s health, and more. When framing the discussion
regarding abortion in view of the fetus being a human being with inherent worth and
rights, additional considerations come to light that are often not addressed in similar
discussions.
First, by nearly any standard of judgment a practitioner decides to use, the fetus should be
recognized as a unique human entity, not merely as a part of the mother’s body. A
standard means of determining what is or is not a part of someone’s body is the
possession of the same DNA and being derivative of the same source. In both cases, the
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fetus is clearly a separate entity, possessing different DNA and deriving from an altogether
different source than the rest of the woman’s body.
The Christian worldview consistently emphasizes respect for the powerless and
mistreated. This is true in the case of the disabled, for the unborn, minorities—whether
racial, ethnic, gender, or religious—who have been unjustly treated as well as for the poor.
Certainly, Christians, being imperfect people, have not always lived up to this standard, but
the consistent witness of Christians throughout history has been one of loving the least of
these and caring for those that others would exploit.
Mother Teresa
The woman known as Mother Teresa is an example of how powerful an idea the
imago Dei is when its implications are lived fully. Born in 1910 in modern day
Macedonia, Mother Theresa devoted her life to service to God as a nun. She saw the
incredible needs of those around her in the Indian city of Kolkata, especially those
living in abject poverty. Recognizing the image of God in those destitute and dying,
she began to care for them, providing medical and palliative care to those on the
streets of this city in India that suffers from poverty exacerbated by dense
population. She viewed herself as serving Jesus himself in each patient. After dying
in 1997, she was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church, and her legacy lives on
in the order of nuns she founded who continue to do the work of caring for the least
of these.
Embryos
The creation of human embryos outside of the confines of the human reproductive
system is controversial. This technological development has been possible only in recent
years, and researchers have only begun to consider the ethical implications of this
advance. Questions regarding whether an embryo is a human person have now taken on
added significance given technological advances; however, this is primarily a
philosophical question rather than a scientific one (Rae, 2018).
Given the increasing use of assisted reproductive technologies that create embryos
outside of the womb, many are asking whether these embryos are to be considered human
persons. Some would suggest that embryos may gain moral status at some point within
gestation in the womb, such as at implantation. But there is no clear point at which to
make this determination.
Others would point to fetal viability as the point at which a fetus gains moral status, but
advances in neonatal technology mean that fetal viability is moving earlier and earlier in
gestation. In fact, it would seem that, starting from conception, embryonic life needs only
shelter and sustenance to continue to grow and develop (Rae, 2018). This alone is a
strong argument, from an essentialist view of human value, for embryos to be considered
human persons.
One major area in which the use of human embryos is involved is in relation to stem cells.
The use of stem cells to treat various diseases, and even to grow human tissue, is one of
the fastest expanding and most promising areas of medical research. Yet it is also an area
that is fraught with potential ethical problems. Adult stem cells may be derived from
mature cells via bone marrow, but embryonic stem cells are derived from human embryos
and most often destroy the embryo in the process, creating the potential problem of
assessing whether human life had to be destroyed in order to provide for or sustain
another’s viability.
For some who do not recognize the human nature of embryos created uniquely in the
imago Dei, such ethical considerations are not challenging. But for those who
acknowledge embryos as having innate worth, this approach to medical research can be
problematic. Now that stem cells may be derived from sources other than human
embryos, the ethical problems as well as possibilities of stem cell research are greatly
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changing (Regalado, 2019). The use of human embryonic stem cells to assist in
reproductive technologies is a growing dilemma within the field of health care and will
only become more difficult as various worldviews clash in making these decisions.
Assisted Reproductive Technologies
An issue intricately connected with the use of human embryos is the question of
technological assistance for those unable to conceive naturally. Infertility has always been
a significant challenge for many wishing to produce their own child. At times, such as in
antiquity, infertility was the central issue for those who could not bear children and
produce a secure heir. Consider, for instance, the biblical stories of Abraham, an important
leader who had no heir, and Hannah, a woman who was barren; both were individuals of
great faith who were unable to have children, and they wrestled with God regarding this
issue for many years.
For those who struggle with infertility, these issues are as important as they were for these
biblical ancestors. This means that the advent of assisted reproductive technologies is
both increasingly welcome and needed; however, the ethics of the use of these
technologies is debated today. Some faith groups do not allow the use of assisted
reproductive technologies at all, others may find only some procedures acceptable, and
still others may not be opposed to any.
At the heart of many of these concerns is a consideration of the difference between
procreation and reproduction (Rae, 2018). Traditionally, procreation was seen as a human
task that was ultimately directed by God. Reproduction, on the other hand, is increasingly
seen as a specifically human task, achieving humanly desired results. These distinct
viewpoints on the nature of human reproduction are at the basis of differing attitudes
toward assisted reproductive technologies.
Some assisted reproductive technologies concern aiding the physical functionalities of
sexual reproduction. This is the case with treatments that alter the biological workings of
the human reproductive system as well as with procedures such as intrauterine
insemination, in which human reproductive organs are aided in their functionalities to
ensure greater likelihood of fertilization.
Other assisted reproductive technologies take a more invasive approach to addressing
more significant reproductive issues by directing and overseeing the reproductive process
itself. This is the case with in vitro fertilization (IVF) in which eggs are stimulated and
harvested, fertilized in a laboratory setting, and transplanted into a maternal uterus. This
infertility treatment and others, such as zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT), gamete
intrafallopian transfer (GIFT), and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), involve
significant medical intervention to aid human reproduction.
With the exception of GIFT, these procedures include the fertilization of an egg and
creation of an embryo outside of the human reproductive system. One potentially
problematic issue concerns what is done with the other embryos created as a part of this
process but, ultimately, were not implanted. Some of these embryos are destroyed, others
are kept in seemingly permanent storage, while others are donated to science for use in
research in which they will effectively be destroyed.
Indeed, the use of stem cells in assisted reproductive technologies has been in process for
some time but has only become viable quite recently (Foht, 2019). Some researchers see
the creation of embryonic stem cells as merely a step in the trajectory toward producing
designer babies (Regalado, 2019; Rae, 2018). If so, a future that includes this prospect
may not be as far away as some might think. This technology could give rise to the
possibility of eugenics—the coordinated effort to purify the genetic makeup of a
population, such as the Nazis undertook—in levels of specificity scarcely dreamed of
before. With these technological developments, practitioners and ethicists must judge
these advances and their consequences.
Case Study: Maternal and Fetal Viability
A young married couple, Tina and Jeff, recently moved into their first house.
Starting his career in the financial services industry, Jeff has been doing well in this
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