Management Question

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Today, many IGDS students:
 Have limited knowledge of Applied Statistics
• Do not study the IGDS module ASM (Applied Statistical
Methods) – Unfortunately
Yet, they have to conduct some form of analysis of data as part of
their Project. This information and data may come from many
sources, such as:
 From within a company where the project has been conducted
 A questionnaire survey about some aspect of their project
The purpose of this class is to provide some simple statistical
tools to enable them to conduct such an analysis without detailed
knowledge of statistical theory
The subject of Statistics is all about:
 Making decisions about numerical data, which has
Variability. Without this variability most statistical theory
would not be necessary
 Drawing conclusions about a “Population” from a “Sample”
Hence you find that probability and sampling theories form the
foundation of statistics
You can often draw general conclusions without having to do
detailed (and often complex) statistical tests by using:
Exploratory Data Analysis
Exploratory Data Analysis
Purpose
 To get a “feel” for what the data represents and its
quality before spending time and effort doing detailed
statistical analysis which may later prove to be
unnecessary
 To sit back and examine the data either by:

Eye or

Graphically
Quality of Data
 Data
too accurate
Excessive digits?
not accurate enough
Excessive rounding up?
inconsistent
Both?
 Some values are suspiciously
High? Low?
 The Sample Size is
too Small? unnecessarily Large?
 Errors caused by:
21.0, 22.3, 225, 20.7, 21.1, ……
 Incorrect observations
from recording and/or typing
 numbers out by a power of 10
errors
 obvious mistakes
 Number of missing observations not available, or not recorded
 Successive values are identical
21.6, 22.1, 22.1, 22.5, 21.8
How do we Start? Where do we Start?
Simplify the data (or at least standardise it), and/or use a scale that
is clear and understandable.
Some examples:
 Remove unnecessary accuracy and/or digits
27.6254, 25.3752, 26.5101,
26.2346, 25.9121, 27.3254,
27.6, 25.4, 26.5, 26.2, 25.9,
27.3,
 Change the scale, e.g. convert Minutes to Hours
Minutes
Hours
3005, 3121, 3576, 4521, 4783, 50.1, 52.0, 59.6, 75.4, 79.7, 85.0,
5102, 3276, 4297, 3876, 4100, 54.6, 71.6, 64.6, 68.3,
Difficult to grasp!
Easy to grasp!
Plot the Data
 Draw Histograms (or “Stem and Leaf” plots)
 Bar Charts (or “Box” plots)
 Graphs (or Scatter Diagrams)
 Charts
 Pie Charts, etc.
They say
“A picture tells a thousand words”
In statistics we say “A picture explains a thousand numbers”
Pictures reveal Variability that Data does not
Look at Measures of Central Tendency
These describe the position of the data along the axis in terms of its
magnitude, there are Three measures although only one seems to
be used, unfortunately!

The Mean (or the Average)
e.g.

174.8+175.3+176.5+177.8+579.1
5
=
1,283.5
5
The Median (often better with small sample sizes and/or Outliers)
e.g. 174.8+175.3+176.5+177.8+579.1
= 176.5 
or
174.8+175.3+176.5+177.8+180.4+579.1
i.e. 176.5 + (177.8 – 176.5)/2

= 256.7?
The Mode The point(s) of Maximum Frequency
= 179.1 
Look at Measures of Spread
 Range
= [Minimum Value – Maximum Value]
 Inter Quartile Range =
 Variance
 Standard Deviation
see later
∑(X – X)2
=
(N – 1)
=
∑(X – X)2
(N – 1)
or
∑(X2) – (∑X)2
N
(N-1)
 Look for Patterns, Trends in the variables that are
strange or do not look right
 Check for Outliers: values that are unusually large
or small compared with the majority of the data
 Check the Shape of the Frequency Distribution:
is it Normal? Does it have Skew (either Positive or
Negative)?
 Check the Sample Size to see if you have enough
data to form meaningful conclusions
Look for Patterns, Trends in the variables
that are strange or do not look right
An Example: Pollution in Victoria Harbour
The following information was taken from samples of Solid Waste from
Victoria Harbour over a four-year period.

A motor launch was driven at a constant speed over a specified
distance in three areas of the Harbour (denoted by Area A,Area B,
Area C, and Area D).

Three runs were made on each of three successive days in a month in
each area, Four times

The collection of waste was made at Four times (January, April, July,
and October) over a period of Five years.

Values of Solid waste in the harbour was in tonnes weight.
Has the Level of Pollution, as measured by Solid Waste Increased,
Decreased, or remained Constant, over the Four year period?
Check the Shape of the
Frequency Distribution
Check for Outliers
?
Mode
Mean
Median
 For skewed distributions, the Mean can be misleading
 The Mode or Median are better measures of central tendency, especially
with small sample sizes where the distribution may not be Normal
 For Moderate Skew: (Mean – Mode) = 3 (Mean – Median)
Check the Sample Size to see if you have enough data to
form meaningful conclusions
N = 100
Certainly Yes, it’s
more than enough
N = 87
Probably Yes, the main
shape has formed
N = 39
No, the distribution
is still “Growing”
Example: World Health Authority Mortality Rates
(Number of deaths per million by Age Group and by Country)
Age
Country
Can
Isr
Jap
Aus
Fra
Ger
Hun
Ita
Net
Pol
Spa
Swe
Swi
Eng
USA
Young
A
21.6
9.4
21.5
28.8
16.4
28.3
48.2
7.1
7.8
26.2
4.1
27.6
21.7
9.6
19.6
B
Age Group
C
D
Old
E
27.3
9.8
18.7
40.3
25.2
34.6
65.0
8.3
10.6
29.1
7.0
40.5
33.6
12.7
22.2
31.1
10.2
21.1
52.3
36.1
41.3
84.1
10.8
17.9
35.9
9.6
45.7
41.1
14.6
27.8
33.5
14.0
31.1
52.8
47.3
49.1
81.3
17.9
20.2
32.3
15.7
51.2
50.3
17.0
32.8
23.5
27.3
48.7
68.5
56.0
51.8
107.4
26.6
28.2
27.5
21.9
35.1
50.8
21.7
36.5
The Questions we should ask Ourselves
1. What is the Average mortality rate?
Is this Average appropriate for all Age groups and/or
Countries?
 Is there a “Significant” Variation by Age Group?
i.e. different Age Groups have different Mortality Rates –
the older people get, the more frequently they die?
 Is there a “Significant” variation by Country?
i.e. different Countries have different Mortality Rates;
people die earlier in some countries as compared to
others?
2. Are there some data that are unusually “High” or “Low”?
If so, should we include them in the analysis?
3. Do countries have a consistent change in Mortality Rate with
a change in Age Group?
i.e. do they Consistently: Increase with Age?
Decrease with Age?
Stay the same?
or, are they Erratic?
If so, which ones are peculiar?
Looking at the Shape of the Distribution
Histogram
Stem and Leaf Plot
22
22
8
8
7
7
4
2
15
7
2
6
8
8
1
4
2
11
5
9
7
0
5
5
9
8
7
3
9
1
0
2
9
7
0
2
1
7
6
3
8
4
1
2
8
1
6
6
6
1
4
9
8
6
6
0
8
0
9
1
1
1
15
11
9
7
6
6
7
2
1
7
7
9
100-109
90-99
80-89
2
70-79
60-69
50-59
40-49
30-39
20-19
10-19
0-9
2
0
0
2
6
0
4
2
1
0
5
2
3
8
3
9
2
4
2
1
4
5
5
1
6
7
7
8
9
10
Looking at Column E (the Oldest Age Group)
Original data
23.5
27.3
48.7
68.5
56.0
51.8
107.4
26.6
28.2
27.5
21.9
35.1
50.8
21.7
36.5
Tally Count
Stem and Leaf Plot
(units in 10’s)
10 7
9
8
7
6 9
5 6,2,1
4 9
3 5,7
2 4,7,7,8,8,2,2
1
0
24
100-109 /
27
90-99
49
80-89
69
70-79
56
60-69 /
52
50-59 ///
107
40-49 /
27
30-39 //
28
20-29 ///////
28
10-19
22
0-9
35
51
22
37
In most cases all you need is a maximum of 3 digits
A Comparison between Column’s A and E
(the Youngest and Oldest Age Groups)
Column A (Youngest Age Group)
Column E (Oldest Age Group)
10
Denotes 68.5
= 69
deaths per
million
9
8
Denotes 48.2
= 48 deaths
per million
7
6
9
5
6, 2,1
4
9
3
5,7
2, 2, 9, 8, 6, 8, 2, 0
2
4, 7, 7, 8, 8, 2, 2
6, 0
1
9, 7, 8, 4
0
8
A Stem Stem
andandLeaf
Plot (by Group)
Leaf Plot (by Group)
Group A
Group B
Group C
Spa
Spa
Spa
Group D
Group E
Spa
Spa
Isr
Eng
0
9 7 8 4
7 8
1
6 0
0 9 1 3
0 1 8 0 5
4 8 6 7
2
2 2 9 8 6 8 2 0
7 5 9 2
1 8
0
2 2 4 7 7 8 8
5 4
1 6 6
4 1 2 3
5 7
1 0
1 6 1
7 9
9
2
3 1 0
1 2 6
3
4
8
5
6
5
9
7
8
4
1
9
10
7
Hun
Hun
Hun
Hun
Hun
Calculation of Median, Upper and Lower Quartiles
Median
Lower
Quartile
Upper
Quartile
(n+1)
=
=
=
the “Man in the Middle”
2
QL
(n+1)
4
QU
3(n+1)
4
=
=
16
= Rank 4
4
48
4
= Rank 12
Plotting the Median, Upper and Lower Quartiles
against the Data
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
A
4
7
8
99
10
16
20
22
22
22
26
B
7
8
10
11
13
19
22
25
27
29
34
C
10
10
11
15
18
21
28
31
36
36
41
D
14
16
17
18
20
31
32
33
34
47
49
E
22
22
24
27
27
28
28
35
37
49
51
28
28
29
48
35
40
41
65
41
46
52
84
50
51
53
81
52
56
69
107
QL
Median
QU
Drawing a Box Plot by Group showing the
Inner and Outer Fences
Inner Fence
(Upper Limit)
Box Plot (by Group)
Outer Fence
(Upper Limit)
Hun
A Spa
22 28
9
56.5
85
Hun
B Spa
25
11
C
Spa
D
Isr
E
Spa UK
15
31
33
18
20
30
107
Hun
80
41
27
10
71
35
Hun
50
35
40
98
146
Hun
89.5
52
50
119
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
127
130
The Boundaries of a Box Plot
 Often called “Fences”, they represent the limits of likely
observations (called “Limits” in Quality Control)
 There are two types of Fences that are used:
Inner Fence (Warning Limit) and Outer Fence (Action Limit)
 Inner Fence
Lower Limit = QL – 1.5(QU – QL)
Upper Limit = QU +1.5(QU – QL)
 Outer Fence
Lower Limit = QL – 3.0(QU – QL)
Upper Limit = QU +3.0(QU – QL)
Showing the Inner and Outer Fences Graphically
Showing the Inner and Outer Fences for
Group A (the Youngest Age Group)
 Inner Fence
Lower Limit = QL – 1.5(QU – QL) = 9 – 1.5 (28 – 9)
= – 19.5
Upper Limit = QU +1.5(QU – QL) = 28 +1.5 (28-9)
= 56.5
 Outer Fence
Lower Limit = QL – 3.0(QU – QL) = 9 – 3.0(28 – 9) = – 48
Upper Limit = QU +3.0(QU – QL) =28 +3.0(28-9)
= 85
Showing the Inner and Outer Fences
for All Groups
Inner Fence
Outer Fence
QL
QU
QL
QU
A
-19.5
56.5
-48
85
B
-25
71
-61
107
C
-24
80
-63
119
D
-30
98
-78
146
E
-10.5
89.5
-48
127
Group
Outliers
Values which do not appear to belong with the bulk of thedata.
Methods of dealing with them
 Reject them as errors
 Obvious Errors should usually be ignored and treated as
missing observations when doing calculations
 Accept them as a valid part of the data – a special
condition?
 Investigate the cause of their values
 You can do calculations With and Without Outliers. Similar
conclusions mean Outliers do not matter, i.e. they are not
significant
Outliers in the Original Data
Age
Country
Can
Isr
Jap
Aus
Fra
Ger
Hun
Ita
Net
Pol
Spa
Swe
Swi
Eng
USA
Mean
Range
Young
A
22
9
22
29
16
28
48
7
8
26
4
28
22
10
20
20
44
B
27
10
19
40
25
35
65
8
11
29
7
41
34
13
22
26
58
Age Group
C
31
10
21
52
36
41
84
11
18
36
10
46
41
15
28
32(28)*
74(42)*
D
34
14
31
53
47
49
81
18
20
32
16
51
50
17
33
36
67
Old
E
24
27
49
69
56
52
107
27
28
28
22
35
51
22
37
43(38)*
85(47)*
Mean
28
18
28
49
36
41
77(65)*
14
17
30
12
40
40
15
28
31
Range
12
18
30
40
40
24
59(33)*
20
20
10
18
23
29
12
17
* without Outliers
Conclusions
1. The Overall Distribution has a moderate Negative skew
tending towards a Higher Frequency for Lower Mortality Rates
(the same applies to each age group)
The Median (or Mode) is a better overall measure than the
Mean i.e. Mode = 25
Median = 28
Mean = 31 (30 if neglecting outliers)
2. HUN has a Higher Mortality Rate for all age groups, why?
But it has two Outliers (Group C and Group E) which we could
ignore
Is the data for HUN valid?
3. SPA has a Lower Mortality Rate than the other countries,
why?
Note: For Group D this is shared with ISR
“
“
E
“
“
“
“
UK
4. There is a consistent Increase in Mortality Rate with Age:
Median
Mean
A
22
20
B
25
26
C
D
E
31
33
35
32
36
43
28*
38*
* without Outliers
5. The variation between age groups (as measured by IQR)
tends to increase with Age (apart from Group E), i.e.
IQR
A
19
B
24
C
26
D
32
E
25
Why?
If we use the Range, it is more erratic, because of country
fluctuations, i.e.
Range
A
44
B
58
C
D
E
74
67
85
42*
47*
* without Outliers
Example:Group A n = 15
Median
(n+1)
=
Lower
Quartile
=
= Rank 8
2
QL
(n+1)
4
3(n+1)
4
=
16
= Rank 4
4
48
Upper
Quartile
=
QU
4
9
10 16 20 22 22 22 26 28 28 29 48
7
8
QL
=
4
= Rank 12
Median
IQR = (QU – QL) = (28 – 9) = 19
QU
Age
Country
Can
Isr
Jap
Aus
Fra
Ger
Hun
Ita
Net
Pol
Spa
Swe
Swi
Eng
USA
Young
A
Base
B
Age Group
C
D
Old
E
+
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Countries
tend
to have
increase in
Rate
as Age
Countries
tend to
have
anan
increase
inMortality
Mortality
Rate
asincreases!
Age increases
i.e. – on 5 occasions, + on 52 occasions, ? on 3 occasions
(obviously) i.e. – on 5But
occasions,
+ on 52 occasions, ? on 3 occasions
why does POL seem to go down?
But why does POL seem to decrease?
Pollution in Victoria Harbour
The following information was taken from samples of Solid Waste
from Victoria Harbour over a four-year period.
 A motor launch was driven at a constant speed over a specified
distance in three areas of the Harbour (denoted by Area A, Area
B, Area C, and Area D).
 Three runs were made on each of three successive days in a
month in each area, Four times
 The collection of waste was made at Four times (January, April,
July, and October) over a period of Five years.
 Values of Solid waste in the harbour was in tonnes weight.
Has the Level of Pollution, as measured by Solid Waste Increased,
Decreased, or remained Constant, over the Four-year period?
Tonnes of
Waste
A
B
C
D
RUN 1
RUN 2
RUN 3
RUN 4
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
OCT
Base
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APR
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Purpose of the Project
 Demonstrate Mastery of the Subject Area

A thorough review of published material

Able to discuss key issues
 Demonstrate the Application of Knowledge
You are able to apply some of what you have learnt
during your IGDS studies
 Communicate the Work Completed
Logically organised facts and opinions
Initial Planning of the Work
 Specify the Objective(s) of the Project
 What is its Scope, is it Broad or Narrow?
It’s probably a combination of both
 What Information, Data, Evidence do you need?
 Who are the so-called Customers of the work?
 The University
 The Company (if it’s an Industrial-based Project)
Mastery of the Subject Area
 Consider Relevant Literature
 Critically assess its Usefulness
 Try to establish “State of the Art” or “Best Practice”
from recent publications
 Examination of Current Practice
Can be both from Published and Unpublished material
 Drawing Conclusions
Application of Knowledge
 Application of Theory to Practice

Drawing conclusions from a review of published
material

Consider the business environment (if appropriate)
 Learning the value of Applying Theory to Practice

Drawing conclusions for future practice

Discussing limitations, applicability, and value of your
work
 Recommendations for Future Work
Communication
 Follow a recognised structure
 Have clear Objective(s), Methodology, and Conclusions
(all of which must be linked together)
 Full and Clear referencing. Clarify what is Your Work
and what was contributed by Others
 Be Accurate, Clear, and Concise
Typing of Project Reports
 Single Side only using 1.5 Line Spacing
 Margins
 Say 25 mm (or 1”) on Left Hand side
 Say 25 mm (or 1”) on Right Hand side
 Say of 25 mm (or 1”) on Top and Bottom. These can
contain any Header or Footer
 Page Numbering
 Use 1, 2, 3, etc. beginning with the first page of the
first Chapter
Chapter 1 – Introduction (1, 2, ……to say 85 at the
end of the last Chapter)
 Page Numbering (Continued)

Alternatively
Chapter 1 – Introduction: 1-1, 1-2, 1-3, ……..…etc.
Chapter 2 – Literature Review: 2-1, 2-2, 2-3 …etc.
Chapter 3 – Methodology: 3-1, 3-2, 3-3 ………..etc.
This approach has the advantage that if you change any
Chapter later (especially Chapter 1), the page numbers of
the other chapters will not change since each chapter has
its own unique chapter and page number
Typing of Project Reports (continued)
 Preliminary pages must use Small Roman Numerals:
i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi, ….. etc.
 Top Right-hand Corner is useful as it’s easier to see
(BS 4821: 1990); it’s your choice but do not use the Top
Left-hand Corner or even worse, the Bottom Left-hand
Corner!
 If a Header is used, it should contain the Chapter
heading
 Size of Font should be 12 point: Arial, Times Roman,
Tahoma, Helvetica, Calibri, Cambria, etc. (you can
choose your own style but be consistent, avoid
changing style (and size) except for main headings
where these can be larger
 Each Chapter should begin on a new page
 Length of Dissertation: Roughly between 10,000 to
20,000 words. Although, it should really be
13,000+, maximum can be 20,000+. Most students
write between 15,000 to 25,000 words
 Size of Font should be 12 point: Arial, Times Roman,
Tahoma, Helvetica, Calibri, Cambria, etc. (you can
choose your own style but be consistent, avoid
changing style (and size) except for main headings
where these can be larger
 Each Chapter should begin on a new page
 Length of Dissertation: Roughly between 10,000 to
20,000 words. Although, it should really be
13,000+, maximum can be 20,000+. Most students
write between 15,000 to 25,000 words
Writing the Project Report
 Title page
 Abstract
 List (or Table) of Contents
 List of Figures
 List of Tables
 List of Abbreviations, Definitions, Glossary of Terms, (if
necessary)
 Acknowledgements
 Author Declaration
Writing the Project Report (continued)
 Chapter 1 – Introduction
• Chapter 2 – Literature Review
• Chapter 3 – Methodology (or Research Methodology)
 Chapter 4 to Chapter ? – Body of the Report
 Chapter ? – Conclusions / Recommendations
 Appendices – Including the Biomedical and Scientific
Research Ethics Committee (BSREC): WMG Supervisor
Delegated Ethical Approval Form (SDA) (see Slide 41)
 References
 Bibliography (if necessary)
Title of the Project
 The Title should be as Concise as possible but should also
Reflect the focus of the work
This is contradictory, not always easy to do, but try your best
For example:
Poor
Quality Improvement in
Manufacturing Industry
What type of manufacturing
industry? Where? What type of
improvement?
Application of Total Quality
Its longer but at least the reader
Management in an
can understand what, and
Better
Electronics Company in
where the work is focused
Mainland China
 You can change the Title later if you feel it can better reflect
your work, but you must get permission of your Supervisor
Title Page
The Title page should give the following information in the
order listed:
 Title of the Project
 Full Name of the Author
 Qualification for which the Dissertation is used (i.e.
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Degree of Master of
Science in ………………..)
 Name of the Institutions to which the Project is submitted
(usually Hong Kong Polytechnic University, and The
University of Warwick)
 The Month and Year of Submission (no need to put Day No)
Abstract
 About 300 words, on a Single page (do not exceed one
page)
 It should briefly:

Introduce the area and subject you have studied

Provide a summary of what you did with the:
Objective(s)

How you did it: Methodology

Explain the results and any implications of what you
did: the Conclusions and any Recommendations
Abstract (continued)
 It’s the first page that the reader sees and must capture
the reader’s interest so make a good job of it!
 You are trying to persuade the reader that it is worth
making the effort to read 60 to 100+ pages of your
report, it is credible, has produced useful results, and
has “Value”
 Assume that he/she might be a potential future
employer
Abstract (continued)
 Assume you are CEO of a company and have charged
one of your subordinates to carry out this work. He/she
has completed the work and given you the project
report
 How would you react to it?
 Is it informative?
 Will it help you in deciding what action to take?
 You can draw your own conclusion from this
perspective. It’s called customer focus: i.e. The CEO is
the Customer and you are giving him your report as the
Product
Example of an
Abstract
List (or Table) of Contents
 This should list in sequence with page numbering (in
Roman numerals), all relevant subdivisions of the
project report, including:
 Title of Chapters, Sections and Sub-sections, as
appropriate
 Appendices – Including the Biomedical and Scientific
Research Ethics Committee (BSREC): WMG Supervisor
Delegated Ethical Approval Not Required/Confirmation (Slide 43)
 References
 Bibliography (if necessary)
Example of a List
(or Table) of Contents
List of Figures and List of Tables
 These must be Separate and Follow the List (or Table)
of Contents
 Any pictures, photographs, maps, graphs, and other
statistical tables should be mounted where they appear
in the text. Care should be taken in folding any maps,
diagrams or tables larger than A4 paper size such as A3
size so that they can easily be opened by the reader
Example of a List
of Figures
List of Abbreviations
This lists the Abbreviations
that are used in the report
An example is shown opposite
Note:
 The Abbreviations are Right
indented
 The Explanation is Left
indented
Thus they can be easily read
Acknowledgements
This is for those whose help you wish to acknowledge
g.Supervisor, other persons that have helped you. There
may also be personnel from a company
Declaration
 There is now a Standard Format where you need to state
that the work presented is your own and has not been
submitted for another award
 How the work relates to the Award for which it is submitted
which will be EBM, MSE, or SCLM. Only complete the one
that applies to you and delete the other
Declaration – Standard Format
Declaration – Revised for EBM
Chapter 1 – Introduction (usually 5 to 10 pages)
 Introduction (and Conclusion) often read first (after the
Abstract)
 It should focus on the background to the project
 If a company or industry is involved, its business and
background
 The reader, having read it, should reach the conclusion that
what needs to be done is exactly what you are now going todo:
the Objective(s)
 You should then state the Objective(s) which will then clarify
the purpose of the project
 Finally, a brief description of the Content of the Report is useful
for the reader so he/she knows what it contains
The Objectives
are clearly stated
The Contents of
the Report are
briefly explained
Chapter 2 – Literature Review (usually 15 to 25 pages)
This should provide the reader with a statement of what has
already been done that is relevant to the area of the project
Relevant Material comes from:
 Textbooks
 Journals
 Newspapers
 The internet
 Company reports, etc.
It involves:
 Finding
 Reading
 Critically evaluating
This will avoid you doing work that has already been done.
i.e. You are not trying to “re-invent the wheel”
Chapter 2 – Literature Review (continued)
A Literature Review should be:
 A Vehicle for Learning where you can improve your
knowledge of the subject
 A Means of driving the project to achieve its Objectives
 As a Method of Comparing, Contrasting, and Evaluating
the literature found, not just summarising the content of
each item
You are at liberty to challenge what Authors say, they are
often expressing their opinion only, what they say is not
“cast in stone” although it’s probably relevant and accurate
Chapter 2 – Literature Review (continued)
A Literature Review should not be:
 Just a List of Definitions, and not extracting and using
the knowledge contained therein.
 A Search to find all existing literature regardless of
whether it is relevant or not.
 A Survey where you are interested in the subject but
cannot relate what you are reading
Methodology (or Research Methodology)
normally Chapter 3 (usually 4 to 6 pages)
This should answer the following questions:
 Where have the Project’s Objective(s) come from?
 How will the Work be Conducted?
 What Approach will beAdopted?
 How will the Data be Gathered, Analysed, and
Summarised?
 If there are different approaches, state what they are
explain the reasons for your selected approach
Examples of Methodologies Illustrated by Flowcharts
The Body of the Report

Should be divided into logical blocks (called Chapters)

There are no fixed rules; it really does depend on your
project.

Do not make Chapters too Long or too Short

A Chapter should not be just One or Two pages

However, often the Methodology will only be a few pages (4 to
6 pages). Other chapters (such as the Literature Review) will
be longer (15 to 25 pages)

If a chapter is more than about say 30 pages, consider
breaking it up into smaller blocks
Analysis and Discussion
 The chapter where intellectual ability is best
demonstrated
 You need to be self-critical in considering how Reliable
and Valid the results and findings are
 It can contain:
 An examination of findings that support (fail to
support, or only partially support) your Objectives
 The limitations of the study that may affect the
validity, reliability, or generalisation of the results
Conclusions (usually 4 to 6 pages)
 Many Examiners read this after the Abstract and
Introduction so check that your Conclusions show that
the project’s Objectives have been achieved, if not,
explain why not
 Focus on the main issues only and any implications
for future work, if appropriate
 It’s useful to restate the Objective(s) and from the
results, comment on them and show how they have
met (or failed to have met) the Objectives
Objective No 1
Comment
Objective No 2
Comment
Conclusions (continued)
 Identify any Weaknesses and Limitations of your study;
no project investigation produces ideal results, and you
can demonstrate that you recognise this
 Do not however, say you haven’t had enough Time!
 Being critical of what you have done demonstrates you
have a deep understanding of the area you have
studied
 Be concise and give only a Summary of your work
(Conclusions are not a Discussion), do not introduce
completely new ideas
Recommendations
 This can usually be combined with your Conclusions,
i.e.
Conclusions and Recommendations
 It can contain:

Suggestions that the company could adopt to
improve their operation (if a company is involved)

Suggestions on what future work might be
conducted to enhance what you have done
Appendices
 This should now contain a copy of a letter e-mailed to you from
Warwick regarding “Ethical Approval Confirmation”, with a
reference number: REGO-20XX-WMGXX-XXXX, or stating:
“Ethical Approval Not Required”. It comes from the:
Biomedical and Scientific Research Ethics Committee
(BSREC): WMG Supervisor Delegated Ethical Approval
(SDA) form that you should have submitted to your approved
project supervisor in conjunction with a draft of your Research
Methodology chapter before any interaction with people as
research participants takes place
 Full instructions for ethical approval can be found on the project
ethics website (or from the IGDS Administrative Office)
https://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/wmg/overseas/common/ethics/
 The Appendices may contain other information for the Project, it
is not essential, but often a useful addition
 It provides a location for information that is too detailed or not
sufficiently relevant for the Body of the report
 Appendix material must be referred to in the Body of the report
or it will be ignored
 Examples:
 Computer Listings
 Company Statements
 Detailed Statistical Information and Raw Data
 Survey of Interview Questionnaires
 Graphs, Bar Charts, Pie Charts, Diagrams, Drawings,
Specifications, etc. that are too detailed to include in the Body of
the report
References
By Number as it appears in the text of the report (called the
Vancouver System). An Example:
[1] O’Shaughnessy, J; Competitive Marketing: A Strategic
Approach; (Routledge, 1992); p.10
[2] Christensen, C; The innovators dilemma when new
technologies cause great firms to fail; (Harvard, 1997), p.39-42
[3] Mahajan, V; Muller, E; Wind, Y; New-Product Diffusion Models;
(Springer, 2000); p.11
[4] Plunkett, W; Plunketts Almanac of Middle Market Companies
2007 (E-Book), (Plunkett, 2006), p.27
References (continued)
By Author in Alphabetical Order (the so-called Harvard Citation Style
commonly referred to as Author-date style). The Author’s Family name and
Reference publication is listed.
 Barker, R.C. and Barber, K. (1997). “Development of Time-Based
Frameworks: Manufacturing System Analysis and ValueAdding
Performance”, International Journal of Management Science Vol. 25, No.
2, pp. 171-197.
 Carr, H. & Pomeroy, J. (1992). “Fashion Design and Product
Development”, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
 Droge, C., Jayaram, J. and Vickery, S.K. (2004). “The Effects of Internal
versus External Integration Practices on Time-Based Performance and
Overall Firm Performance”, Journal of Operations Management, Vol. 22,
pp. 557–573
 Ghemawat, P. and Nueno, J.L. (2003). “Zara: Fast Fashion”, Harvard
Business School Case No. 703-497, Boston: Harvard Business School
Publishing.
References (continued)
For convenience, it is useful to state the number of References listed so
the reader does not have to count them, i.e.
25 Items Listed
[1] O’Shaughnessy, J; Competitive Marketing: A Strategic Approach;
(Routledge, 1992); p.10
[2] Christensen, C; The innovators dilemma when new technologies cause
great firms to fail; (Harvard, 1997), p.39-42
[3] etc. etc.
or

Barker, R.C. and Barber, K. (1997). “Development of Time-Based
Frameworks: Manufacturing System Analysis and Value Adding
Performance”, International Journal of Management Science Vol. 25, No. 2,
pp. 171-197.

Carr, H. & Pomeroy, J. (1992). “Fashion Design and Product Development”,
Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Vancouver
System
Harvard
Citation Style
Tell the reader how many
References you have
included so he/she does
not have to count them!
Do not include both and mix
them up:
Vancouver (Numbered)
and
Harvard (A to Z) Styles!
All you are doing is
confusing the reader who is
probably marking your work!
Good Practice
Poor Practice
Leave a gap and/or bullet points between each Reference
References (continued)
Reference your Figures,
and Tables to clearly
identify your Own work and
those obtained by Others
If you have produced it
yourself, you can say:
(Source: Author)
This will avoid any
confusion by the
Examiners/Moderator
References (continued)
A very helpful YouTube Clip on how to how to
reference different sources such as books, journals
and websites using the Harvard System.

Bibliography
 A list of sources of general information that you have
used in your project, often used to learn about a specific
area or topic
 Not specifically cited although sometimes may be
commented upon in general terms
 These should be listed by Author’s family name (in
Alphabetical order)
 Not essential for a project but often, a useful addition
General Points on Presentation
 Avoid excessive margins, use what is specified in the
previous slides
 The default on Microsoft Word is:1.25″ (LHS) and 1.25″
(RHS). This is not necessary; 1″ (or 25mms) (LHS) and 1″
(or 25mms) (RHS) is more than enough, even with a binder
 Also note that the default setting for a page on Microsoft
Word is “Letter” size, not A4. If you use Letter size to type
your report and A4 to print it out, it will look odd
 Always check the page breaks on your documents before
printing out and avoid putting a Heading of a section at the
Bottom of the page and its Narrative at the Top of the next
page!
This is not
good, and
looks messy
This is better;
it is what it
should be
General Points on Presentation (continued)
 Always go to a new page for a new Chapter
 Always use your spell check and use “English” English
rather than “American” English recognising that the
Polytechnic University and the University of Warwick are
strictly Institutions that teach in English. Avoid a mixture of
both
 Get into the habit of using the spell check on the word
processor. This will help, but not always, avoid typo errors.
However, you may still have a problem; it works only for
“American” English, not “English” English
General Points on Presentation (continued)
If you use a plain sheet for each new Chapter do not
repeat the same on the next page, it looks foolish.
General Points on Presentation (continued)
 Do not use Chinese writing in parts of your report.
Remember the MSc award is from Universities that teach in
English, i.e. The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, and the
University of Warwick
 Do not include tables of statistical information in your report if
they are too small to read