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Analysis of Fire Incidents in Passenger Ships and Strategies
for Advancing Maritime Safety Standards
Graduation Project
Prepared By
Abdullah Aljabri (004627-18)
Al Waleed Talal Alshirawi (004704-18)
Mahmood Al-khusaibi (004532-18)
Ahmed Hilal Salim Al-shidhani (004674-18)
Mahnad Sulaiman Albalushi (004761-18)
Supervisor
PhD Captain Seyed Behbood Issa Zadeh
Autumn 2023
International Maritime College Oman
Declaration of Academic Integrity
Form Title
Department
Form Code
Issue Date
Academic Departments
IMCO/QMS/AD/FORM -002
Declaration of Academic Integrity
International Maritime College Oman
Please sign to confirm that you have read and accepted the following statements. Your assessment will not
be accepted without this signed declaration.
1. I confirm that I have read and fully understood IMCO’s policy on Academic Integrity, including practices
that may lead to committing plagiarism and which I must avoid.
2. I confirm that in the attached assessment, I have not presented or attempted to present anyone else’s work
as my own except where I have indicated. I confirm that I understand that doing so would mean I have committed
plagiarism.
3. I confirm that I understand that if I fail to comply with IMCO’s policy on Academic Integrity, IMCO will
impose penalties that may, in the most serious of cases, result in the termination of my studies at IMCO. I
confirm that I understand that if I am judged guilty of plagiarism, I will receive a score of zero, and the other
penalties indicated under IMCO’s policy on Academic Integrity in the Student Handbook will apply.
4. I agree to IMCO submitting my work to Turn-it-in or using any other source to verify whether my work
contains plagiarised material.
The extent to which I have worked with others is as follows:
Program: Nautical Studies Deck officers
Module Code: DGP 1
Module Title: Marine Graduation Project (Research, Preparation, and Preparation of the Graduation)
IMCO student’s Names and ID numbers:
▪
Abdullah Aljabri – 004627-18
▪
Al Waleed Talal Alshirawi – 004704-18
▪
Mahmood Al-khusaibi – 004532-18
▪
Ahmed hilal salim Al-shidhani – 004674-18
▪
Mahnad Sulaiman Albalushi – 004761-18
Class: DO 4
Signature ………………… ……………………
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
1.1
Objectives……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2
1.2
Novelty Issue …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2
1.3
Target Audience ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 3
1.4
Research Gap …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3
1.5
Factors Influencing …………………………………………………………………………………………. 3
1.6
Problem Statement………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4
1.7
Research Questions …………………………………………………………………………………………. 4
1.8
Structure of the Report …………………………………………………………………………………… 5
Chapter 2: Literature Review ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 7
2.1
Fire Incidents in Passenger Ships (2000-2023) ………………………………………………….. 8
2.2
Review of Regulations and Standards…………………………………………………………….. 12
2.3
Insights from Diverse Fire Prevention Studies (2013-2021) …………………………….. 16
Chapter 3: Methods and Analysis …………………………………………………………………………………….. 19
3.1
Argument for the Research Method ………………………………………………………………. 20
3.2
Advantages and Disadvantages ……………………………………………………………………… 21
3.3
Ethical Code Sampling ………………………………………………………………………………….. 21
Chapter 4: Results and Discussion ……………………………………………………………………………………. 24
4.1. Findings ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 25
4.1.1
Fire Incidents in Passenger Ships (2000-2023) ……………………………………………….. 25
4.1.2
Review of Regulations and Standards ……………………………………………………………. 27
4.1.3
Insights from Diverse Fire Prevention Studies (2013-2021) ……………………………… 28
4.2 Analysis and Evaluation ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 30
4.2.1
Fire Incidents in Passenger Ships (2000-2023) ……………………………………………….. 30
4.2.2
Review of Regulations and Standards ……………………………………………………………. 34
4.2.3
Insights from Diverse Fire Prevention Studies (2013-2021) ……………………………… 36
4.3 Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 38
Chapter 5: Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 41
5.1
Recommendations …………………………………………………………………………………………. 42
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5.2
Main Findings……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 44
5.3
Limitations ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 44
5.4
Future Studies ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 45
References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 46
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List of Figueres
Figure 1. Navigating Maritime Safety: A Chronicle of Notable Ship Incidents ……………………….. 31
Figure 2. Causes of Fire Incidents ……………………………………………………………………………………… 32
Figure 3. Review of Regulations and Standards ………………………………………………………………….. 34
Figure 4. Practical Applicability Assessment of Maritime Safety Studies ………………………………. 38
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List of Table
Table 2.1: Review of Fire Incidents in Passenger Ships (2000-2023)…………………… 8
Table 2.2: Identified literatures on passenger ship fire accidents………………………… 9
Table 2.3: Table 2.3: summary of various literatures on rules and standards……………. 12
Table 2.4: Literature on the complete idea of fire protection studies…………………..
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List of Abbreviations
IMO: International Maritime Organization
SOLAS: Safety of Life at Sea
FSS Code: International Code for Fire Safety Systems
SOP: Standard Operating Procedures
MARINFO: Maritime Information
GLASISIS: Global Safety Information System for the Information Society
HIS: Hull Inspection System
IACS: International Association of Classification Societies
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Chapter 1.
Introduction
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In 2022, over 200 fire incidents were reported in passenger ships (AGCS, 2023). This marked
an annual record for the number of incidents since the start of the decade. Also, during that period,
64 passenger ships were destroyed by fires. In maritime operations, fire safety is a vital aspect.
This means that a thorough understanding of the various factors that affect the safety of seafarers
is essential.
In the expansive realm of maritime operations, the significance of fire safety transcends the
boundaries of vessel types, encompassing both leisure boats and commercial passenger ships alike.
The importance of fire safety is not limited to vessel types (McCartan et al., 2014). In the maritime
industry, it is also essential to consider the factors that can affect fire safety, such as the enclosed
structures of passenger ships and combustible materials (McNay et al., 2019). As vessels travel
through vast oceans, they become vulnerable to various activities.
1.1
Objectives
The primary objectives of this study are to investigate and address the rising issue of onboard
fire incidents in commercial passenger ships using a scoping literature review. Understanding the
various factors that contribute to the safety of seafarers is the focus of this research. It also aims to
highlight the importance of fire safety in various vessel types, such as cruise ships and commercial
passenger vessels. This study examines the various personalities and obstacles that influence
developing and maintaining fire safety features in maritime facilities.
1.2
Novelty of Issue
The study was initiated after a surge in passenger ship fires in 2022 that destroyed 64 vessels.
It aims to provide a new perspective on fire safety by investigating factors that can affect the safety
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of ships. This study aims to contribute to developing policies and practices that will address the
increasing number of fire incidents in the maritime industry.
1.3
Target Audience
The primary audience for this research includes maritime safety professionals, regulatory
bodies, policymakers, and industry stakeholders involved in passenger ship operations. The study
aims to provide practical insights and recommendations to inform the development of regulations,
safety protocols, and industry practices in response to the notable surge in fire incidents in 2022.
1.4
Research Gap
A research gap is an area of knowledge not explored adequately (Ajemba & Arene, 2022). It
can void our understanding of a particular field or subject. Researchers must identify and address
these gaps to improve knowledge and develop new theories. Doing so helps us advance our
understanding of a particular discipline and opens new avenues for investigation.
1.5
Factors Influencing
Our investigation also delves into the complicated relationship between elements that affect fire
safety measures. This knowledge can help the industry develop effective strategies to prevent fires
from happening in the first place (Shokouhi et al., 2018).
1.5.1 Material Selection: The materials used in constructing passenger ships can significantly
impact fire susceptibility (Panias et al., 2015). Identifying those prone to ignition and contributing
to the spread of fire is important.
1.5.2 Dynamic Environments: Dynamic environments expose passenger ships to varying
operational and weather demands.
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1.5.3 Training and Awareness: Proper awareness programs and training can help improve the
safety of seafarers (Demirel & Bayer, 2015).
1.5.4 International Maritime Regulations: Complying with international maritime legislation is
essential and can aid in developing effective anti-fire strategies.
1.5.5 Regulatory Compliance: Adherence to maritime safety regulations is essential. Analyzing
the ambiguities or gaps in such regulations can help identify opportunities for enhancing anti-fire
measures (Komljenović et al., 2017).
1.5.6 Technological Advancements: By integrating the newest innovations into onboard
systems, the overall effectiveness of anti-fire measures can be enhanced (Khan et al., 2022).
1.5.7 Environmental Considerations: The corrosive effect of marine elements on fire safety
equipment threatens its effectiveness and longevity. It is essential to understand the environmental
factors that affect equipment durability.
1.6
Problem Statement
The fire safety of passenger ships is a complex issue with various implications for the maritime
industry. Due to their nature, passenger ships are made of materials that can significantly
contribute to the fire’s severity. Identifying and addressing these weaknesses can help improve the
ship’s fire resistance. The following section will discuss specific research questions, establishing a
seamless connection throughout the manuscript to ensure a coherent exploration of the identified
problem and potential solutions.
1.7
Research Questions
•
How effective are current safety equipment standards and regulations in addressing fire
prevention on board vessels in PASSENGER SHIPS
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•
what specific enhancements can be proposed to create a more comprehensive anti-fire
framework?
The first research question concerns the effectiveness of regulations and safety equipment
standards when preventing fires on board passenger ships. It aims to analyze the current fire
prevention protocols and identify areas for improvement.
The second question is about establishing a comprehensive framework for preventing fires on
passenger ships. This investigation aims to identify the gaps in the current fire prevention strategy
and develop new ideas to improve it.
1.8
Structure of the Report
This report begins with an introduction and layout section, which explores the various aspects
of fire safety aboard vessels. The Literature Review follows the introduction and looks into the
knowledge base related to maritime safety equipment.
In addition to placing the current research within a genealogy of literature, it presents methods
utilized in previous studies, discusses their limitations, and highlights the findings. The purpose of
this section is to establish the foundations for future analysis.
The following section discusses the research methodology and data collection, where the choice
of the method is argued, and it analyzes its disadvantages and advantages. It also addresses the
limitations of the research and discusses ethical considerations. The next section of the report
focuses on the evaluation and findings of the study. It presents a comprehensive analysis of the
data and provides insightful conclusions. This section also critically examines the study’s
conclusions.
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The report’s concluding section presents the essential findings and conclusions, which are then
used to develop practical recommendations. These recommendations are designed to help improve
the fire safety measures aboard passenger ships.
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Chapter 2:
Literature Review
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Due to the unique risks and challenges faced by the maritime sector, it has been identified that
a robust safety system is required to protect its employees and cargo. This literature review aims
to comprehensively analyse the maritime industry’s current fire-fighting equipment and
procedures. It also explores the limitations and methodologies of the research.
Table 2.1: Review of Fire Incidents in Passenger Ships (2000-2023)
Research Title
Analysis of Recent
Cruise Ship Mishaps and
Disasters
Investigation Report:
Nordlys Fire 2011
Authors
Mileski et al.
(2014)
Kolstad (2014)
Activity Summary
Report: Spirit of Norfolk
Ship
Carnival Cruise Lines
US Department of
Homeland
Security (2022)
Kwortnik (2006)
Research in
Transportation Business
& Management
Philippine maritime
safety: A tragedy on the
MV Lady Mary Joy 3
Fire at American Queen
Voyages Cruise Ship
Rodrigue & Wang
(2022)
2.1
Various news
sources (2023)
White (2023)
Subject
Factors contributing to cruise ship accidents
and fires, including the Star Princess
incident.
Cause and response to the fire on the
Nordlys cruise ship, focusing on engine
room malfunctions and crew training.
Investigation into the fire on the Spirit of
Norfolk ferry, including potential causes
and emergency response.
Overview of Carnival Cruise Lines’
operations and safety procedures, including
the 2022 Carnival Freedom fire.
Analysis of supply chains and disruptions in
the cruise shipping industry, including the
Carnival Freedom incident.
They were reporting on the MV Lady Mary
Joy 3 fire in the Philippines, highlighting
maritime safety concerns in the country.
News reports on the fire aboard the
American Queen Cruises’ Ocean Navigator,
including evacuation and investigation
details.
Fire Incidents in Passenger Ships (2000-2023)
This section provides a narrative literature assessment on passenger ship fire accidents. In this
part. Table 2.2 briefly identify the literature.
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Table 2.2. Identified literatures on passenger ship fire accidents.
Title
Understanding The Causes of
Recent Cruise Ship Mishaps and
Disasters. Research In
Transportation Business &
Management
Effect Of Water Mist Suppression
System in Engine Room: Case
Study of Fire in The Cruise Liner
Ms Nordlys
Activity Summary Report: Spirit
Of Norfolk Ship. U.S.
Department of Homeland
Security.
Carnival Cruise Lines. Cornell
Hotel and Restaurant
Administration Quarterly
Year
2014
Main Theme
Effectiveness of ship safety
measures after a fire incident
Authors
Mileski, J., Wang, G.,
& Beacham, L. L
2014
Importance of crew training
and system reliability in fire
incidents on cruise ships
Kolstad,
2022
CG Inspection
Activity
Cruise Shipping Supply Chains
and The Impacts of Disruptions:
The Case of The Caribbean.
Burned By the Torch of The
Incendiary.
2022
Fire incident aboard the Spirit
of Norfolk, emphasizing the
need for fire detection and
extinguishing systems
Fire in the funnel of the
Carnival Freedom due to poor
maintenance, emergency
response, and compensation
Cruise shipping supply chains
and the impacts of disruptions
2006
2023
Pacific Historical Review fire
on the American Queen
Cruises’ Ocean Navigator,
investigation, and assessment
of ship’s seaworthiness
Kwortnik, R. J.
Rodrigue & Wang
White
2.1.1 Star Princess (2006): A fire broke out on the Princess Cruises ship Star Princess in the
Caribbean in 2006 because of a cigarette butt drops from a balcony (Mileski et al., 2014). One
person died due to the incident. It emphasized the challenges that remain despite the
implementation of modern safety measures. By analyzing the incident’s response, officials can
learn about the effectiveness of the ship’s safety measures.
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2.1.2 Nordlys (2011): In September 2011, a fire exploded on Nordlys, a cruise ship operated by
Hurtigruten. Two of its crew members died, and over a dozen people were injured. The incident,
originating from the ship’s engine room, resulted in a power outage. The fire started due to a
malfunction in the vessel’s water mist suppression system (Kolstad, 2014).
This caused the main engine’s components to overheat. Due to the manual operation of the water
fire suppression system, the incident delayed the extinguishing of the fire. Also, the CO2 (Carbon
Dioxide) system was not activated as the crew members were not located near the incident. The
failure of the emergency generator was caused by insufficient cooling, which further exacerbated
the situation. The incident highlighted the need for better crew training.
2.1.3 Spirit of Norfolk (2022): On Tuesday afternoon, a fire broke out aboard the Spirit of
Norfolk, carrying over a hundred passengers, most of whom were elementary school students.
Although the fire was initially put out, it flared up again on the vessel as it was docked at the naval
station in Norfolk. Due to safety concerns, the Coast Guard decided that the ship was too unstable
for entry. The fire broke out on the ship during the afternoon, which prompted the evacuation of
some of its passengers, including children from Virginia Beach and Newport News. The cause of
the incident is still unknown.
According to the NTSB (National Transportation Safety Board), the fire was most likely caused
by the accumulation of combustible materials near the exhaust pipe of the vessel’s operating port
generator (Inspections & Compliance Inspection Activity, 2022). The lack of a fire detection
system and an extinguishing mechanism in the engine room contributed to the severity of the
incident.
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2.1.4 Carnival Freedom (2022): In May 2022, a fire broke out in the funnel of the Carnival
Freedom cruise ship as it was docked in the Grand Turk due to poor maintenance. Although no
one was injured, the incident forced the vessel’s evacuation. The emergency response team
extinguished the fire quickly, which caused extensive damage to the vessel’s funnel (Kwortnik,
2006).
The Carnival Conquest was sent to retrieve the passengers from Port Canaveral. Despite the
disruption, the company compensated the affected passengers by offering them onboard credit,
additional compensation for port parking charges, and future cruise credits (Rodrigue & Wang,
2022). Due to the incident, several of the Carnival Freedom’s upcoming departures were cancelled.
The ship left Port Canaveral for a subsequent five-day cruise. The cruise line also continued to
monitor the situation.
2.1.5 MANILA (2023): In the Philippines, a disaster occurred when a fire broke out on the MV
Lady Mary Joy 3. This incident happened due to electrical connections, open flame, and
spontaneous combustion. The incident killed 29 individuals, including a baby. Some survivors said
that 225 people were rescued from the burning vessel. The conflicting reports about the vessel’s
occupancy during the incident added to the confusion. The tragic incident highlighted the country’s
maritime safety problems, mainly caused by aging fleets and overcrowded passenger ships. The
need to improve regulations and safety measures in the waters of the Philippines is also highlighted
by this incident.
2.1.6 American Queen Voyages (2023): A fire exploded on the American Queen Cruises’ Ocean
Navigator in Portland, Maine. The city’s fire department responded to reports of smoke inside the
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ship’s engine room and treated the injured individual before taking them to a hospital (White,
2023).
The passengers and crew members of the ship were evacuated after a fire broke out on the
vessel. Various agencies, such as the US Coast Guard and the ATF (Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco),
are investigating the incident. The fire’s cause is unknown (White, 2023). The ship’s seaworthiness
is also being assessed to see if it can continue.
2.2
Review of Regulations and Standards
This part provides a narrative literature assessment on firefighting standards, rules, and
legislation, specifically for passenger boats. Table 2.3 summarized various rules and standards:
Table 2.3: summary of various literatures on rules and standards
Title
The Merchant
Shipping (Fire
Protection: Large
Passenger Ships)
Regulations 1998
Australian
Government
Regulation Impact
Statement Status
(2021)
Year
1999
Main Theme
Overview of the importance of a robust safety
system, communication and training protocols, and
the need for continuous improvement in maritime
safety measures
Authors
King’s
Printer of
Acts of
Parliament.
2021
Overview of the Australian regulatory framework
for passenger ship safety, including fire-fighting
equipment, evacuation procedures, and alignment
with international standards
Systematic Analysis
Of 2020 Revisions to
SOLAS Chapter II-2
2015
Examination of the 2020 revisions to SOLAS
Chapter II-2 regulations, covering legal and policy
aspects, technological assessments, incidents, and
emphasizing preventive measures and technology
advancements
Department
of the
Prime
Minister
and
Cabinet.
Maritime
and
Coastguard
Agency
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According to The Merchant Shipping (Fire Protection: Large Passenger ships) Regulations
1998, Due to the unique risks and challenges faced by the maritime sector, a robust safety system
must be in place to protect vessels, crew members, and cargo.
This system should include practical fire prevention tools such as alarms and extinguishers,
which can be used in confined spaces. Maritime accidents can affect different industries’ operations
and threaten people’s and cargo’s safety. Due to the unpredictable nature of the trade and the diverse
regulations that apply to it, the sector struggles to adapt to new situations. The effectiveness of
safety measures depends on their ability to cope with various risks. One of the most critical factors
that crew members must consider when responding to fires is their communication and training
protocols.
Aside from having the necessary equipment, the maritime industry also needs to adopt strategies
to minimize the effects of fires on its operations. The maritime industry’s continuous improvement
of safety measures is a vital component. This review aims to analyze the current fire prevention
research in the field comprehensively.
The genealogy of maritime safety literature is examined to understand the various aspects of
maritime safety, such as fire prevention and equipment. The current body of work mainly focuses
on interpreting and analyzing regulations related to the safety of passenger ships and cargo. Policy
and legal analyses are also conducted in this domain to examine the effectiveness of regulations in
protecting the safety of crew members and vessels.
The gap between the regulations’ requirements and practical implementation often limits
regulatory studies. This is because the regulations are specific, but studies need to examine the
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implementation of these mandates in the real world. The gap between the regulations’ requirements
and practical implementation is addressed by our research, which aims to provide insights into the
evolution and efficacy of maritime safety regulations.
In 2021, the Australian government established a regulatory framework that ensures the safety
of passengers on passenger ships. This includes the provision of fire-fighting equipment and
evacuation procedures. The regulations also cover designing and constructing passenger ships’ fire
protection systems.
To ensure the safety and protection of passengers, the Australian Government has issued
guidelines on installing and maintaining fire suppression and detection systems on passenger ships.
They also require crew members to undergo training and respond to emergencies.
The regulations, part of Australia’s maritime safety framework, are aligned with international
standards. They aim to ensure that the safety of passengers and crew members is always
maintained. Their continuous review and updates are aimed at improving the procedures related
to fire safety.
Current maritime sector fire safety literature mainly focuses on the technical specifications and
regulatory frameworks of safety equipment. Other studies have utilized qualitative and quantitative
methods to understand better the effectiveness of various fire prevention measures, like evacuation
protocols and fire pumps.
This study aimed to bridge the gap between maritime fire safety’s technical and operational
aspects. Through an interdisciplinary approach, we can provide a deeper understanding of the
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various factors affecting maritime vessels’ safety. The findings of studies acknowledge the
importance of implementing safety measures.
However, there is a limited understanding of the human factor that affects the implementation
of these measures. For instance, the crew members’ responsibilities in responding to fires are
poorly studied. This suggests that further studies are needed on the practical challenges of
implementing these measures in the maritime environment.
This study systematically analyzes the 2020 revisions to the SOLAS (International Convention
for the Safety of Life at Sea) Chapter II-2 regulations. It involves reviewing the legal and policy
aspects of the regulations, as well as technological assessments and incidents.
It aims to provide a balanced view of the various aspects of maritime fire safety. The 2020
revisions’ comprehensive nature emphasizes the need for preventive measures, fire detection and
suppression, and efficient vessel evacuation routes. Incorporating lessons learned from previous
incidents and technological advancements shows a proactive approach to maritime safety.
The study acknowledges the maritime industry’s various challenges, but it may not capture
every incident or circumstance. It also might not provide a comprehensive view of how vessels
can comply with the new regulations.
Moreover, the changing nature of safety standards and technology limits the scope of the study.
This study is part of the broader literature on maritime safety. It aims to present a contemporary
analysis of the latest revisions to SOLAS chapter II-2. Incorporating technological advancements,
practical considerations, and legal insights can inform future fire detection, prevention, and
extinction regulations aboard passenger ships.
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2.3
Insights from Diverse Fire Prevention Studies (2013-2021)
This part will also create a narrative review of the literature on the complete idea of fire
protection studies, which will be provided in Table 2.4:
Table 2.4: Literature on the complete idea of fire protection studies
Title
Initiatives for Ship Fire
Safety Measures
Designing for safety in
passenger ships utilizing
advanced evacuation
analyses—A risk-based
approach. Safety Science
Study investigating costeffective measures for
reducing the risk from fires
on ro-ro passenger ships
(FIRESAFE)
Year
Main Theme
2021 Examination of passenger ship fire safety
initiatives and discussions, insight into
proposed changes for large vehicle carriers
and container passenger ships, based on trends
discussed by the International Maritime
Organization
2006 Proposal of realistic evacuation scenarios
based on risk assessment, highlighting the
significance of considering both consequences
and probability, with the aim of developing
safer regulations and improving evacuation
procedures
2013 Investigation of cost-effective measures for
fire risk reduction on Ro-ro passenger ships
through formal safety assessment, utilizing
historical data analysis and criteria such as
gross tonnage, Froude number, IACS
classification, and keel laying dates
Authors
Nippon
Kaiji
Kyokai
Vanem, E.,
& Skjong,
R.
Rederi, S.,
& Veritas,
B.
This study by Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (ship classification society) in 2021 provides a valuable
perspective on the various initiatives and discussions related to passenger ship fire safety. It
provides insight into the proposed changes for large vehicle carriers and container passenger ships.
The research was conducted using a methodology that thoroughly summarizes the trends currently
discussed by the International Maritime Organization.
This study aimed to identify the various safety issues affecting container passenger ships’
operations. It also presents Class ship classification society initiatives, which highlight the
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responses of the ship’s management and owners. The resource’s limitations are mainly due to its
theoretical nature, which provides an overview of the proposed measures without sufficient
examination of their practicality or empirical support.
Future studies will investigate the implementation of these measures in real life to gain a deeper
understanding of how they can affect the safety of container vessels.
In a study from Vanem and Skjong in 2006, the paper proposes a set of realistic evacuation
scenarios that can be used to assess the risks associated with onboard passenger ships. These
scenarios are based on a risk assessment to provide a foundation for developing realistic
simulations of maritime accidents.
This paper presents a risk-based method for assessing the performance of evacuations in
maritime scenarios. It sho
