Description
Cognitive Processes Class
Discussion 3
Book for the reference
title: Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience
Author: Goldstein, Bruce E.
Publisher: Wadsworth. Cengage Learning
Edition: 5th
ISBN Code: 978-1-285-76388-0
Discussion Topic Chapter 7 Encoding, Retrieval, and Consolidation
Top of Form
Read Chapter 7 of your text to provide you with a point of reference.
In this discussion you are to investigate what constitutes effective studying. Many people seem to think that while studying they can multi task different activities. Some seem to think that they can listen to music while reading their textbooks.
Knowing what you are learning about how the brain processes information is this possible? Present your views and support your position with a source
Chapter 7 Summary
Encoding is the process of acquiring information and transferring it into LTM. Retrieval is transferring information from LTM into working memory.
Some mechanisms of encoding are more effective than others in transferring information into LTM. Maintenance rehearsal helps maintain information in STM but is not an effective way of transferring information into LTM. Elaborative rehearsal is a better way to establish long-term memories.
Levels of processing theory states that memory depends on how information is encoded or programmed into the mind. According to this theory, shallow processing is not as effective as deep elaborative processing. An experiment by Craik and Tulving showed that memory was better following deep processing than following shallow processing.
Evidence that encoding influences retrieval includes research looking at the effect of
(1)
forming visual images,
(2)
linking words to yourself,
(3)
generating information (the generation effect),
(4)
organizing information,
(5)
relating words to survival value, and
(6)
practicing retrieval (the retrieval practice effect or the testing effect).
Five memory principles that can be applied to studying are
(1)
elaborate,
(2)
generate and test,
(3)
organize,
(4)
take breaks, and
(5)
avoid “illusions of learning.”
There is evidence that note taking by hand results in better test performance than note taking by laptop. This can be explained by deeper encoding for handwritten note taking.
Retrieving long-term memories is aided by retrieval cues. This has been determined by cued recall experiments and experiments in which participants created retrieval cues that later helped them retrieve memories.
Retrieval can be increased by matching conditions at retrieval to conditions that existed at encoding. This is illustrated by encoding specificity, state-dependent learning, and matching type of processing (transfer-appropriate processing).
The principle of encoding specificity states that we learn information along with its context. Godden and Baddeley’s diving experiment and Grant’s studying experiment illustrate the effectiveness of encoding and retrieving information under the same conditions.
According to the principle of state-dependent learning, a person’s memory will be better when his or her internal state during retrieval matches the state during encoding. Eich’s mood experiment supports this idea.
Matching types of processing refers to the finding that memory performance is enhanced when the type of coding that occurs during acquisition matches the type of retrieval that occurs during a memory test. The results of an experiment by Morris support this idea, which is called transfer-appropriate processing.
Consolidation is the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state into a more permanent state. Müller and Pilzecker carried out an early experiment that illustrated how memory is decreased when consolidation is disrupted.
Synaptic consolidation involves structural changes at synapses. Systems consolidation involves the gradual recognition of neural circuits.
Hebb introduced the idea that the formation of memories is associated with structural changes at the synapse. These structural changes are then translated into enhanced nerve firing, as indicated by long-term potentiation.
The standard model of consolidation proposes that memory retrieval depends on the hippocampus during consolidation but that after consolidation is complete, retrieval involves the cortex, with the hippocampus no longer being involved.
The multiple trace model states that the hippocampus is involved both when memories are being established and during the retrieval of remote episodic memories.
There is evidence supporting the standard model, but recent research indicates that retrieval of episodic memories can involve the hippocampus, which supports the multiple trace model.
Consolidation is facilitated by sleep. There is also evidence that material people expect they will be asked to remember later is more likely to be consolidated during sleep.
Recent research indicates that memories can become susceptible to disruption when they are reactivated by retrieval. After reactivation, these memories must be reconsolidated.
There is evidence for the usefulness of reconsolidation therapy in treating conditions such as posttraumatic stress disorder.
Two explanations have been proposed to explain the results of Hupbach’s experiments in which human memories were reactivated. One explanation involves reconsolidation, the other involves considering the context in which learning takes place.
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Cognitive Psychology: Connecting
Mind, Research, and Everyday
Experience, 5e
Chapter 7: LTM: Encoding,
Retrieval, and Consolidation
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Icebreaker
•
Get into groups of 8–10 students and form a circle. In each circle,
start with a random person and then move clockwise around the circle
and say your name and a fact about you (the person who will go last
will pick what this fact should be—favorite song, favorite cheese,
etc.). As you move around the circle, each person should say the
names and facts about every person before them and then add their
own.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Chapter Objectives (1 of 3)
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
07.01: Explain how depth of processing during encoding influences
subsequent memory retrieval.
07.02: Describe how the processes of visual imagery, relating study
material to yourself, generating your own study information,
organizing information into meaningful categories, relating study
words to their potential to facilitate survival, and practicing retrieval
of newly learned information can be used to improve memory.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Chapter Objectives (2 of 3)
07.03: Explain how elaboration, generating your own questions, selftesting, organizing study material into meaningful frameworks,
taking study breaks, avoiding “illusions of learning,” and “active”
notetaking can be used to improve the effectiveness of studying.
07.04: Describe the importance of retrieval cues as revealed by
differences in memory performance in tests of free recall
compared to cued recall.
07.05: Explain how encoding specificity, state-dependent learning, and
transfer-appropriate processing can improve memory retrieval.
07.06: Differentiate between synaptic consolidation and systems
consolidation of memory.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Chapter Objectives (3 of 3)
07.07: Contrast the standard model with the multiple trace model of
consolidation.
07.08: Describe the role of sleep in memory consolidation.
07.09: Describe evidence from research in rats and humans
demonstrating that memories can be changed by interfering with
the reconsolidation process.
07.10: Explain how treatment with the drug propranolol during
reactivation of PTSD-related memories can lead to a subsequent
reduction in the emotional reaction associated with those
memories following reconsolidation.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Section 7.1
Encoding: Getting Information into Long-Term Memory
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Getting Information into LTM
•
•
•
Encoding: acquiring information and transforming it into memory
Retrieval: transferring information from LTM to working memory
Maintenance rehearsal
– Repetition of stimuli that maintains information but does not transfer it to
LTM
•
Elaborative rehearsal
– Using meanings and connections to help transfers information to LTM
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Levels of Processing Theory (1 of 2)
•
•
Memory depends on how information is encoded
Depth of processing
– Shallow processing
▪ little attention to meaning
▪ focus on physical features
▪ poor memory
– Deep processing
▪ close attention to meaning
▪ better memory
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Levels of Processing Theory (2 of 2)
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Activity: Discussion (1 of 4)
•
•
Get into small groups of 3–4 students and spend around 5 minutes
talking about how you could apply the levels of processing theory to
your own studies. Generate at least three ideas.
When you’re finished, have one person from each group share their
ideas with the rest of the class.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Other Factors That Aid Encoding
•
•
•
•
•
•
Visual imagery
Self-reference effect
Generation effect
Organizing to-be-remembered
information
Relating words to survival value
Retrieval practice
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Organization, Comprehension, and Memory
(1 of 2)
•
•
Bransford & Johnson (1972)
Presented difficult-to-comprehend information
– Experimental Group 1 saw picture that helped explain the information
before reading it
– Experimental Group 2 saw picture after reading the passage
– Control Group did not see the picture
•
Group 1 outperformed the others
– Having a mental framework of comprehension aided memory encoding
and retrieval
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Organization, Comprehension, and Memory
(2 of 2)
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Retrieval Practice Effect
•
Karpicke and Roediger (2008) study-and-test experiment with word
pairs
– Group 1: studied and tested all words/all sessions
– Group 2: studied only words missed in previous tests; tested on all
words
– Group 3: studied all words; tested only on words missed in previous
tests
•
Group 3 later performance < than Groups 1 and 2
– Shows testing memory retrieval can improve memory.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Design and Result of Karpicke and Roediger
(2008) Experiment
First Study and
Test Session:
STUDY
Group 1
Group 2
(less studying)
Group 3
(less testing)
All pairs
All pairs
All pairs
First Study and
Test Session:
TEST
Repeat Study and
Test Session:
STUDY
Repeat Study and
Test Session:
TEST
Test After One
Week % Correct
All pairs
All pairs
All pairs
81
All pairs
Only pairs NOT
recalled in previous
tests
All pairs
81
All pairs
Only pairs NOT
recalled in previous
tests
36
All pairs
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Activity: Discussion (2 of 4)
•
Your instructor will assign you to a group to think about the best way
to remember a concept from this chapter using one of the following:
–
–
–
–
–
–
•
Visual imagery
Relating study material to yourself
Generating your own study information
Organizing information into meaningful categories
Related study words to their potential to facilitate survival
Practicing retrieval of newly learned information
When you’re finished, share your ideas with the rest of the class.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Section 7.2
Effective Studying
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Memory and Effective Studying
•
•
•
Elaborate—associate what you are learning to what you already know
Generate questions and self-test
Take breaks
– Spacing effect: Memory is better for multiple short study sessions
– Consolidation is enhanced by sleep after studying
•
Avoid the “illusion of learning”
– Familiarity does not mean comprehension
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Activity: Discussion (3 of 4)
•
Your instructor will assign you to a group to think about the best way
to study for an exam using one of the following:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
•
Elaboration
Generating your own questions
Self-testing
Organizing study material into meaningful frameworks
Taking study breaks
Avoiding “illusions of learning”
“Active” notetaking
Use specific examples. When you are finished, share your ideas with
the class.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Section 7.3
Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Retrieving Information from LTM (1 of 2)
•
Retrieval: process of transferring information from LTM back into
working memory (consciousness)
– Most of our failures of memory are failures to retrieve
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Retrieving Information from LTM (2 of 2)
•
Cued recall:
– Most of our failures of
memory are failures to
retrieve
– Cue presented to aid
recall
– Increased performance
over free recall
– Retrieval cues most
effective when created by
the person who uses
them
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Activity: Think–Pair–Share–Discuss
•
•
•
Choose a concept from this class and write two pretend exam
questions—one with retrieval cues, and one without. When you’re
done, get together with a partner and take turns asking each other
these questions. Which one was easier, and why?
When you’re finished discussion these with your partner, take turns
reporting your questions to the rest of the class. These may help your
classmates study!
Next, for discussion, answer the following questions:
– What type of question would you rather have on an exam, and why?
– What type of question would you rather have while studying, and why?
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Encoding Specificity (1 of 2)
•
•
We learn information together with its context
Baddeley’s (1975) “diving experiment”
– Best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval occurred in the same
location
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Encoding Specificity (2 of 2)
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
State-Dependent Learning
•
Learning is associated with a particular internal state
– Better memory if person’s mood at encoding matches mood during
retrieval
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Matching the Cognitive Task
•
Transfer-appropriate
processing
– memory task results
improve if the type of
processing used during
encoding is the same as
the type during retrieval
•
Morris and coworkers
(1977)
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Activity: Discussion (4 of 4)
•
Get into a small group of 5–6 students. Your instructor will assign you
to generate ideas related to how you can improve your memory
retrieval for material in this class using one of the following:
– Encoding specificity
– State-dependent learning
– Transfer-appropriate processing
•
When you are done, report your best 1–2 ideas to the rest of the
class.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Section 7.4
Consolidation: Establishing Memories
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Consolidation (1 of 3)
•
Transforms new memories from fragile state to more permanent state
– Synaptic consolidation: rapid, occurs at synapses
– Systems consolidation: gradual, reorganization of neural circuits
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Consolidation (2 of 3)
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Consolidation (3 of 3)
•
Müller and Pilzecker (1900)
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Synaptic Consolidation (1 of 2)
•
Hebb (1948)
– Learning and memory represented in the brain by physiological changes
at the synapse
– Neural record of experience
•
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
– Enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation
– Structural changes and enhanced responding
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Synaptic Consolidation (2 of 2)
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Activity: Knowledge Check (1 of 3)
•
Synaptic consolidation occurs at the level of _____ while systems
consolidation happens at the level of _____.
a) the brain; the neuron
b) the neuron; the brain
c) the axon; the dendrite
d) the hippocampus; the spinal cord
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Activity: Knowledge Check—Answer (1 of 3)
•
Synaptic consolidation occurs at the level of _____ while systems
consolidation happens at the level of _____.
a) the brain; the neuron
b) the neuron; the brain
c) the axon; the dendrite
d) the hippocampus; the spinal cord
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Systems Consolidation
•
Standard model of consolidation
– After encoding, activity of
hippocampus fades with time
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Memory Loss and Injury (1 of 2)
•
•
•
Standard model of consolidation based partly on observation of
injury/trauma-related memory loss
Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory for events prior to the trauma
Graded amnesia: memory for recent events is more fragile than for
remote events
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Memory Loss and Injury (2 of 2)
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Systems Consolidation (1 of 2)
•
Multiple trace model of consolidation
– Hippocampus is activated during retrieval of both recent and remote
memories (Gilboa and coworkers, 2004)
– Response of the hippocampus can change over time (Viskontas and
coworkers, 2009)
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Systems Consolidation (2 of 2)
•
Multiple trace model process
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Activity: Knowledge Check (2 of 3)
•
According to _____, the hippocampus remains in active
communication with the cortical areas after consolidation.
a) the multiple trace model of consolidation
b) the standard model of consolidation
c) both models of consolidation
d) neither model of consolidation
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Activity: Knowledge Check—Answer (2 of 3)
•
According to _____, the hippocampus remains in active
communication with the cortical areas after consolidation.
a) the multiple trace model of consolidation
b) the standard model of consolidation
c) both models of consolidation
d) neither model of consolidation
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Consolidation and Sleep
•
Memory consolidation appears to be enhanced during sleep (Gais
and coworkers, 2006)
– One reason: sleeping stops interference from environmental stimuli
•
Some memories are consolidated more than others (Wilhelm and
coworkers, 2011)
– Memory for task was stronger when participants expected to be tested
after awaking
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Activity: Written Reflection
•
Take a moment to write a reflection that responds to the following
questions:
– Given what you know about sleep and memory consolidation, do you
think your sleep patterns are well-suited for you to retain information you
learn while you’re in class or studying?
– What are some things you could do related to sleep that might help
improve your memory consolidation?
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Section 7.5
Reconsolidation: The Dynamics of Memory
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Reconsolidation: Memory Updating
•
•
•
•
Retrieved memories become fragile and are consolidated again →
reconsolidation
Nader and coworkers (2000): rat experiment
Hupbach and coworkers (2007): human reconsolidation experiment
Memory is a “work in progress” … constantly constructed and
remodeled in response to learning and conditions
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Activity: Think–Pair–Share
•
On your own, take a few minutes to respond to the following prompt:
– If something happened that you wanted to forget, what are some things
you could do to interrupt memory consolidation?
•
•
When you’re finished, get together with a partner and share your
ideas.
As a pair, report your best ideas back to the class.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Reconsolidation and PTSD
•
•
Posttraumatic stress disorder causes severe emotional responses to
traumatic memories
Brunet and coworkers (2008)
– Participants reactivated a traumatic memory
– Drug administered to block amygdala stress receptors during
reconsolidation of memory
– Later reactivation of same memory showed lower stress responses
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Activity: Knowledge Check (3 of 3)
•
In Brunet and colleagues’ (2008) experiment, PTSD patients received
either a placebo or propranolol while listening to recordings that
described their traumatic experience. A week later, they found that the
placebo group had ____ physiological responses when listening to
the same recording.
a) stronger
b) weaker
c) the same
d) no
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Activity: Knowledge Check—Answers (3 of 3)
•
In Brunet and colleagues’ (2008) experiment, PTSD patients received
either a placebo or propranolol while listening to recordings that
described their traumatic experience. A week later, they found that the
placebo group had ____ physiological responses when listening to
the same recording.
a) stronger
b) weaker
c) the same
d) no
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Assessment Slide
•
What is one concept you learned about in this chapter that could help
you improve your grade in this course?
•
If you wanted to remember concepts you learn in college for many
years, what are some strategies you could employ during and after
your college courses?
•
What has been the most difficult concept for you in this chapter? Why
do you think this is so difficult? What strategies will you employ to try
to understand this concept more clearly?
•
What is the most interesting thing you learned? Why do you think it’s
so interesting?
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Summary Slide (1 of 3)
•
Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
•
07.01: Explain how depth of processing during encoding influences
subsequent memory retrieval.
•
07.02: Describe how the processes of visual imagery, relating study
material to yourself, generating your own study information,
organizing information into meaningful categories, relating study
words to their potential to facilitate survival, and practicing retrieval of
newly learned information can be used to improve memory.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Summary Slide (2 of 3)
•
07.03: Explain how elaboration, generating your own questions, selftesting, organizing study material into meaningful frameworks, taking
study breaks, avoiding “illusions of learning,” and “active” notetaking
can be used to improve the effectiveness of studying.
•
07.04: Describe the importance of retrieval cues as revealed by
differences in memory performance in tests of free recall compared to
cued recall.
•
07.05: Explain how encoding specificity, state-dependent learning,
and transfer-appropriate processing can improve memory retrieval.
•
07.06: Differentiate between synaptic consolidation and systems
consolidation of memory.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Summary Slide (3 of 3)
•
07.07: Contrast the standard model with the multiple trace model of
consolidation.
•
07.08: Describe the role of sleep in memory consolidation.
•
07.09: Describe evidence from research in rats and humans
demonstrating that memories can be changed by interfering with the
reconsolidation process.
•
07.10: Explain how treatment with the drug propranolol during
reactivation of PTSD-related memories can lead to a subsequent
reduction in the emotional reaction associated with those memories
following reconsolidation.
Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be
scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Cognitive Processes Class
Discussion 3
Book for the reference
title: Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience
Author: Goldstein, Bruce E.
Publisher: Wadsworth. Cengage Learning
Edition: 5th
ISBN Code: 978-1-285-76388-0
Discussion Topic Chapter 7 Encoding, Retrieval, and
Consolidation
Read Chapter 7 of your text to provide you with a point of reference.
In this discussion you are to investigate what constitutes effective studying. Many people seem to think
that while studying they can multi task different activities. Some seem to think that they can listen to
music while reading their textbooks.
Knowing what you are learning about how the brain processes information is this possible? Present
your views and support your position with a source
Chapter 7 Summary
Encoding is the process of acquiring information and transferring it into LTM. Retrieval is transferring
information from LTM into working memory.
Some mechanisms of encoding are more effective than others in transferring information into LTM.
Maintenance rehearsal helps maintain information in STM but is not an effective way of transferring
information into LTM. Elaborative rehearsal is a better way to establish long-term memories.
Levels of processing theory states that memory depends on how information is encoded or programmed
into the mind. According to this theory, shallow processing is not as effective as deep elaborative
processing. An experiment by Craik and Tulving showed that memory was better following deep
processing than following shallow processing.
Evidence that encoding influences retrieval includes research looking at the effect of
(1)
forming visual images,
(2)
linking words to yourself,
(3)
generating information (the generation effect),
(4)
organizing information,
(5)
relating words to survival value, and
(6)
practicing retrieval (the retrieval practice effect or the testing effect).
Five memory principles that can be applied to studying are
(1)
elaborate,
(2)
generate and test,
(3)
organize,
(4)
take breaks, and
(5)
avoid “illusions of learning.”
There is evidence that note taking by hand results in better test performance than note taking by laptop.
This can be explained by deeper encoding for handwritten note taking.
Retrieving long-term memories is aided by retrieval cues. This has been determined by cued recall
experiments and experiments in which participants created retrieval cues that later helped them
retrieve memories.
Retrieval can be increased by matching conditions at retrieval to conditions that existed at encoding.
This is illustrated by encoding specificity, state-dependent learning, and matching type of processing
(transfer-appropriate processing).
The principle of encoding specificity states that we learn information along with its context. Godden and
Baddeley’s diving experiment and Grant’s studying experiment illustrate the effectiveness of encoding
and retrieving information under the same conditions.
According to the principle of state-dependent learning, a person’s memory will be better when his or her
internal state during retrieval matches the state during encoding. Eich’s mood experiment supports this
idea.
Matching types of processing refers to the finding that memory performance is enhanced when the type
of coding that occurs during acquisition matches the type of retrieval that occurs during a memory test.
The results of an experiment by Morris support this idea, which is called transfer-appropriate
processing.
Consolidation is the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state into a more permanent
state. Müller and Pilzecker carried out an early experiment that illustrated how memory is decreased
when consolidation is disrupte
