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Safety Science 140 (2021) 105284
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Safety Science
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/safety
Assessing the common occupational health hazards and their health risks
among oil and gas workers
Chizubem Benson, Christos Dimopoulos, Christos D. Argyropoulos, Cleo Varianou Mikellidou,
Georgios Boustras
Occupational Safety and Health, CERIDES – Excellence in Innovation and Technology, European University Cyprus, 6 Diogenes Street, Egkomi, Nicosia 2404, Cyprus
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Health hazards
Oil and gas industry
Risks
Workers
The workplace’s burden remains a significant concern to workers in the oil and gas industry, where workers are
continually exposed to various kinds of occupational risks. The study aimed to identify the different health
hazards and their sources across the oil and gas industry to determine the risks associated with health hazards.
Methods: A qualitative approach was employed to identify the different hazards connected with the operational
environment. A total of 1000 questionnaires were distributed randomly across the various departments in the
Nigerian oil and gas industry, and 327 returned to the research team. Analysis of data was carried out using the
SPSS. Results: The result shows that ergonomic hazards were found to be most predominant among the hazards
assessed in the industry. Ergonomic hazards are 30%, physical hazards 26%, chemical hazards 23%, psychosocial
hazards 18%, and biological 3%. Conclusion: Considering the aims of this study, the hazards that exposed
workers to ill-health were identified with their sources in the oil and gas operational environment. Some of the
health hazards were identified to have short-term health effects on workers, such as headaches, skin burn, eye
and skin irritation, and rashes. In contrast, musculoskeletal disorders, respiratory disease, leukaemia, asphyxi
ates, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease are long-term health effects caused by other hazards. Recom
mendations: Adequate supervision should be imposed on the workers in their workplace, proper hazards
assessment should be conducted in the industry, and compulsory medical testing should be carried out on
workers always to know their health status.
1. Introduction
responsible for occupational hazards globally. It is still estimated by the
International Labour Organization (ILO) that 2 million workers die per
year from work-related occupational diseases. However, the rate of
work-related accidents and injuries varies across countries, depending
on the level of industrial development. In particular, developing coun
tries continue to record tremendous losses in work-related occupational
accidents, diseases more than the developed countries. (Kheni et al.,
2008, Zheng et al., 2010, Takala et al., 2012, Demba et al., 2013).
Nigeria falls within these developing countries that experience more
than 100 occupational deaths, and billions of capital losses have been
recorded for 2009 and 2010 only due to occupational challenges
(Ngwama, 2016). The industry has contributed significantly to the
country’s economy and the nation’s energy needs. Therefore, occupa
tional health management and practice in the Nigerian oil and gas in
dustry must consider the hazards within the operational environment in
order to prevent future risks that will significantly impact the well-being
Workplace hazards remain a significant concern for workers in the
oil and gas industry, where workers are continuously exposed to
different forms of occupational hazards. It is believed that the oil and gas
working environment is one of the most dangerous working settings
(Ron, 2003). However, the industry poses various occupational risks due
to numerous process activities (Eyayo, 2014). Globally, 2.9 billion
workers are exposed in their workplace to risk threats. There are also
two million deaths annually attributed to occupational diseases and
injuries, and 4% of gross domestic product (GDP) – is lost due to occu
pational illnesses and injuries (Meswani, 2008).
In the 2000 World Health Organization survey, it was concluded that
37% of workers suffer from back pain, 16% from hearing illness, 13%
from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, 11% from asthma, 10%
from trauma, 10% from lung cancer, and 2% from leukaemia are
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (C. Benson), [email protected] (C. Dimopoulos), [email protected].
cy (C.D. Argyropoulos), [email protected] (C. Varianou Mikellidou), [email protected] (G. Boustras).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105284
Received 12 June 2020; Received in revised form 20 January 2021; Accepted 30 March 2021
Available online 29 April 2021
0925-7535/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Benson et al.
Safety Science 140 (2021) 105284
of the workers (Ngwama, 2016). To the best of our knowledge, no recent
research has been performed in assessing the common occupational
health hazards and their health risks among oil and gas workers in
Nigeria. Identifying the various hazards threat emanated from the in
dustry will be an effective way to control them and avoid more health
effects. Thus the aim of this study was:
workers experienced in their workplace. In general, workers in the oil
and gas industry are exposed to occupational hazards such as chemical,
physical, biological, ergonomic, and psychosocial hazards (Chauhan,
2014). Occupational hazards can be categorised into two groups: safety
hazards type that causes accidents, which result in physical injury to
workers, and health hazards type, which results in the development of
the disease (Donoghue, 2004).
The health effects on workers exposed to those hazards depend on
the exposure’s level, intensity, exposure duration, and the organ
exposed to particular hazards. Thus, it will determine the level of health
challenge the worker will develop (Bediako & Amorin, 2010). It is
important to understand that a “hazard” only constitutes the potential to
harm. Harm depends on the circumstances of toxicity of the health
hazard, the amount of exposure, and duration. Risks involve can also be
estimated according to the severity of the damage they cause (Smith
et al., 2003). See Fig. 1 occupational hazards and their sources in the oil
and gas industry.
– To identify the different health hazards and their sources across the
oil and gas industry
– To determine the risk associated with the health hazards, to provide
recommendations in managing the risks emanated from the opera
tional environment.
2. Overview of occupational hazards and their effects on
workers
This study focuses on assessing the common occupational health
hazards and risks in the oil and gas industry. This concept needs to be
considered within the general framework of the occupational well-being
of workers. Occupational health hazards generally differ from those
found in the general environment. Thus, because workers are often
exposed to confined spaces, the workplace’s hazard exposure levels are
usually higher than those exposed to hazards in the general environment
(Hassim & Hurme, 2010). An occupational hazard is the hazards
2.1. Chemical health hazards
Chemical usage in oil and gas has an adverse high health effect on
workers. Although this is not surprising, many chemical substances are
associated with this industrial sector’s activities. Either as exploration or
production stage (as gathered in the material safety data sheet (MSDS),
Occupational Health Hazards
Chemical Hazards
Sources:
• Corrosion inhibitor
• Drilling fluid/Additives
• Mud pits
• Storage tanks
• Cementing, completion and
simulation process
• Production process
• Refining process etc.
Heath risks:
• Respiratory disease
• Leukemia
• Asphyxiates
• Eye and skin irritation
• Headaches etc.
Physical Hazards
Sources:
• Vibration from the flow
pipe
• Compressor Engine noise
• High temperature
• Wet floor(slips and trips)
• Heat radiation from the
Plant
• Working in a confined
space etc.
Heath effects:
• Hearing loss
• Skin burn
• Hand-arm vibration
Syndrome
• Heart stroke etc.
Psychosocial Hazards
Sources:
Workload
Long working hours
Site isolation
Workplace violence
Lack of support at
workplace
Emotional labour etc.
Heath risks:
• Anxiety disorder
• Depression (mood)
• Hypertension
• Cardiovascular disease etc.
Biological Hazards
Sources:
• Poor food safety controls on
offshore installations
• Parasite
• Bacterial
• Virus
• Drilling dusts and mists etc.
Heath risks:
• Blood-borne diseases
• Skin irritation
• Airborne pathogens such as
the common cold etc.
Fig. 1. Occupational health hazards sources and health risks.
2
Ergonomic Hazards
Sources:
• Manual handling activities
• Repetitive motions
• Awkward postures
• Frequent lifting
• Poor lighting
• Lack of support from a coworker etc.
Heath risks:
• Musculoskeletal disorders
• Cumulative trauma
disorders
• Stiffness
• Loss of coordination etc.
C. Benson et al.
Safety Science 140 (2021) 105284
products, or part of the discharged effluents in the form of solids, liquids,
solvent, gases, mists, vapours and fumes, i.e., fuels and welding fumes,
oil spills, flammable and explosive substances.
Human health is influenced by all the behaviours of a person exposed
to a continuum of chemical exposure in the natural environment,
including air, water, and soil, no matter the circumstance of touch
(which may be recreational, residential, or occupational), (WHO, 1993).
Chemical exposure in the workplace is almost exceptionally higher than
that of the general population in another environment (Duarte-Davidson
et al., 2001). Thus, the adverse effect of chemicals is most likely to
appear in the workplace.
Workers exposure to chemicals may cause disease in many ways such
as a specific disease may result directly from exposure to a particular
chemical compound, exposure to a chemical may be only one of several
factors attributing to the development of a disease, and part of a multicausal relationship (Tsuchiya, 1978). The health effects of workers
exposed to chemical toxicity include organ system damage, e.g., liver,
kidneys, bones/joints, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory system, brain
and nervous system, and blood-forming system, acute poisonings,
reproductive failures, and terata, cancers, allergic reactions and also the
cause of the deterioration of the environment (Aitio, 2003). Some of
these effects are instant and acute; others may be delayed and result in
chronic situations, while others have long term effects such as sterility,
mutations, and congenital disabilities (World Health Organization
(WHO), 1983).
excessive responsibility for human or economic concerns can also have
adverse psychological effects (Wadsworth et al., 2003).
The epidemiological evidence exists of an elevated risk of cardio
vascular disorders, particularly coronary heart disease and hyperten
sion, associated with workers’ work stress (Steptoe & Kivimäki, 2012).
Prolonged/extended working hours are, therefore, part of what is known
as an “abnormal work plan” and it means working outside the 8-hour
working duration specified by the work legislation of different coun
tries (Working Time Directive) as harmonized by the International Labor
Organization (ILO). More also, one of the physiological problems asso
ciated with Shift duty and the night shift, in specific, is that working,
eating, and sleeping phases are changed. Workers who engage in shift
duty or prolonged hours of work experience disrupting and keeping a
distance from family, love one, and social activities may be likely
affected by the low quality of sleep, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and
increased neuroticism (Giovanni, 2010; Tobiasi, 2014).
2.4. Ergonomic health hazards
The oil and gas industry involves too many activities, from explo
ration to production process. However, workers are negatively associ
ated with ergonomic hazards (Muhammad et al., 2019). Health
problems that are involved with ergonomic; it as the result of interaction
between the following conditions: the postures workers forced to adapt
to reach, the manners workers operate the objects and equipment they
work with, and the nature, time history of the utilization of force on
those objects (Whitely & Plant, 2000).
In this technological era, most of the lifting and handling activities in
the oil and gas industry are perform with the latest machinery or
equipment. However, some tasks still need the human to executed has
led the workers to exposure to ergonomic hazards (John et al., 2019).
The health effects of workers exposed to ergonomic hazards include the
musculoskeletal system and the upper limbs, neck, lower back cumu
lative trauma disorders, stiffness, etc. (Whitely & Plant, 2000). They are
also associated with impaired visual function from visually demanding
tasks over extended durations with inappropriate task lighting
2.2. Physical health hazards
The dynamic nature of work in the oil and gas industry continually
involves offshore and onshore. Workers exposed to several hazardous
conditions in the physical work environment include noise, vibration,
explosions, fire, heat, high pressure, high vacuum, ionizing radiation,
slips, and trips, causing injury and harm to workers’ lives and after. In
turn, these hazards can cause or lead to accidents that differ across the
oil and gas industry and involve blowout of drilling fluid, gas explosion,
falls from height, electrocution, and mobile equipment accidents in the
drilling rig (Donoghue et al., 2000).
Noise-induced lead to hearing loss; vibration leads to the syndrome,
such as vascular, neurological, and musculoskeletal disorders. Vibration
and noise militate against health generally. However, these exposures
are links to various physiological and psychological health effects, such
as annoyance, sleep disturbances, electroencephalographic changes, and
cardiovascular disorders (Morrell et al., 1997).
It has been shown that ionizing radiation, such as cosmic radiation,
induces double-stranded DNA, which influences genomic instability in
human chromosomes (Lim, 2002). The heat produced from the pro
duction engine and work stress has metabolic heat in the body, the
temperature being in proportion to work intensity. The environment and
physical factors and age, sex, physical fitness, health status, clothing,
and acclimatization may be significant factors contributing to the
changes occurring in the human physiological response to heat stress, i.
e., heat strain (Beshir, 1994). The workplace’s heat is also associated
with diminished vigilance, heat-stroke, heat-related cramps, rashes and
collapse, and exhaustion caused by water and salt depletion (Negash,
2002).
2.5. Biological health hazards
The hazard is known as food-poisoning outbreaks, typical manifes
tations of biological hazards in the offshore or onshore operational
environment. They are likely to occur more frequently, and often related
to poor hygiene, associated with water dispensers, ice makers and ice
cream machines. Galley space may also be limited, so cold storage can be
insufficient. Airborne diseases can spread quickly through ventilation
systems on offshore installations because accommodation is pressurized,
and living space is typically at a premium (Punch, 2005). Robust health
risk management is required to control health risks from potential Le
gionnaires’ disease from water pipes’ contamination, particularly in
showers of accommodation blocks and air-conditioning plants (Karen &
Ron, 2009).
In summary, it may-be said that anyone who wants to work in the oil
and gas industry been local or international, off-shore or onshore, should
be aware of facing the following hazards and agents, chemical hazards
sources corrosion chemicals, drilling fluid/Additives, Production oil and
gas well, refining process (petrochemical), physical hazards sources
include vibration from the flow pipe, compressor engine noise, high
temperature, wet floor (slips and trips), heat radiation from the Plant
and working in a confined space, etc. Psychosocial hazards include
workload, long working hours, site isolation, workplace violence, lack of
support at the workplace.
Ergonomic hazards involved manual handling, repetitive motions,
awkward postures, frequent lifting, low lighting, and lack of support
from a co-worker. Biological hazards include poor food safety controls
on offshore installations, parasites, bacterial, virus and drilling dust, and
mists. Finally, the hazards lead to various health challenges, such as
2.3. Psychosocial health hazards
Psychosocial hazards are obtainable in the oil and gas industry.
However, the threat stems from overloaded work pressure, prolonged
hours of work, shift work or call duty schedules and in some cases,
monotony/boredom that can be done with repeated plans in some
sectional operations (International Labour Organization (ILO), 1986).
Workload has many physiological, psychological, and social conse
quences that lead to disturbances in the normal sleep-wake cycle, burnout syndromes, and depression (Korneeva et al., 2013). Site isolation or
3
C. Benson et al.
Safety Science 140 (2021) 105284
respiratory disease, leukaemia, asphyxiates, eye, and skin irritation.
Headaches, hearing loss, skin burn, hand-arm vibration syndrome, heart
stroke, anxiety disorder, depression (mood), hypertension, cardiovas
cular disease. Musculoskeletal disorders, cumulative trauma disorders,
stiffness, loss of coordination, blood-borne diseases, airborne pathogens
such as the common cold, and respiratory illnesses (such as and digestive
system disorders and ulcers, etc.).
Table 1
Research questions.
S/N
Q1.
Q2.
Q3.
Q4.
3. Methodology
Q5.
3.1. Sample and procedures
Q6.
This research aims to identify the health hazards and their sources
across the oil and gas industry. Data were collected through sampling
from workers of the Nigerian oil and gas industry, which comprises
workers across administrative positions and field workers in their
various departments. Hence, questionnaires captured participants’ age,
years of experience and educational level, and other relevant informa
tion useful in the research subject. A validation review of the ques
tionnaires was performed using experts in the research field, which
evaluate the questions to see it covers or captured all the necessary in
formation in the research. A pilot test was also carried out with 30
questionnaires and was found generally straightforward, readable, and
could be completed relatively quickly. After the required assessment, the
final questionnaires were distributed to a random sample of 1000
workers, with 27 operating stations operated by 19 different companies.
A total of 327 questionnaires were completed and returned to the
research team. Participants responded to all the questions using a 5point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly
agree. See table 1. Finally, statistical analysis was carried out using SPPS
to measure the percentage of the occurrence of those health hazards
identified by workers in their various working environments.
Q7.
Q8
Q9.
Q10.
Q11.
Q12.
Q13.
Q14.
Q15.
Q16.
Q17.
Q18.
Q19.
Q20.
Q21.
Q23.
Q24.
4. Results
Q25.
Q26.
Descriptive statistics of the sample demographics of participants
reveal that 91.13% of the respondents (3 2 7) were male, and 8.87%
were female. Participant’s age was at the range of 18–52, and above,
work experience is between the range of 2 – 10 years. Above, the
educational level of participants was a professional degree to doctoral
degree or equivalent. See Table 2. A reliability test was performed on the
data collected to determine adequacy and consistency. The result
confirmed the data collected to be reliable at a consistency level of 0.70.
Chemical hazards consist of 5 items with Cronbach alpha values of 0.85;
Physical hazards comprise 7 items and a Cronbach alpha of 0.80. Psy
chosocial hazards are made up of 6 items with Cronbach alpha values of
0.82; Ergonomic hazards contain 6 items with Cronbach alpha values
0.90, and Biological hazards involve 5 items with Cronbach alpha values
0.70. α ≥ 0.9 = Excellent, 0.9 > α ≥ 0.8 = Good, 0.8 > α ≥ 0.7 =
Acceptable, 0.7 > α ≥ 0.6 = Questionable, 0.6 > α ≥ 0.5 = Poor and 0.5
> α = Unacceptable (Hair et al., 2003). The minimum acceptable
Cronbach alpha value to accept that a measurement scale is reliable is
0.70. The attained Cronbach alpha values were at least 0.70, which
means that they met the minimum prescribed threshold for construct
reliability. Table 1 depicts the demographic information regarding the
participants.
The evaluation of occupational hazards emanated in the oil and gas
industry. The analysis results indicate that workers in the industry face
more ergonomic hazards, which amount to 30%, followed by Physical
hazards, 26%, chemical hazards 23%, and Psychosocial hazards 18%.
Thus, the least among the hazards evaluated in the level of occurrence
are biological hazards, which amount to be 3% in the research industry.
See Fig. 2.
The risk impact analysis indicates that high musculoskeletal disor
ders are encountered by employees in the oil and gas industry, especially
those working in operational and drilling departments. Some of the
Q27.
Q28.
Q29.
Q30.
Q31.
Research questions
Chemical Health Hazards
Do you agree that your job role is part of dealing with chemical substances?
Do you agree that chemicals/gases are flammable, poisonous, and corrosive?
Do you agree that harmful chemicals are sometimes inhaled, swallowed,
injected, and spillover your skill?
Do you agree that chemicals are likely to affect one health when exposed to
them for a long time?
Do you agree that exposure to chemical hazards could cause reproductive
disorder, cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease, and kidney disease,
etc.?
Do you agree that the effect of chemical hazards can lead to loss of life?
Physical Health Hazards
Do you agree that the noise level in your workplace is relatively high
Do you agree that exposure to loud noise could lead to loss of hearing?
Do you agree that your job function has to do with working with an object,
tools, equipment, machine, chemical, etc., with a high temperature?
Do you agree that excessive heat will contribute to body cramping?
Do you agree that vibration will disturb the spine and cause fatigue?
Do you agree that that inadequate lighting will affect the eyes?
Do you agree that radiation can cause cancer and premature ageing of the
skin?
Psychosocial Health Hazards
Do you agree that your workload is very challenging?
Do you agree that you would like to be transferred to another unit/
department due to the lack of a corporation?
Do you feel isolated from your working environment?
Do you agree that sometimes you are being talked down by your Superior?
Do you face any aggression and harassment in your working place?
Do you know that Psychosocial hazards could cause hypertension, anxiety,
boredom, etc.?
Ergonomic Health Hazards
Do you take an uncomfortable stance even when working?
Do you work in height sometimes?
Do you agree you stand for a long time when doing your work functions?
Do you agree that your health could be compromised by manually lifting
heavy objects?
Do you work repetitively and monotonously when performing your task?
Do you agree that ergonomic hazards may cause back, spine, and body
discomfort?
Biological Health Hazards
Do you agree that certain substances containing microbes can be present in
your working environment?
Do you agree that while working, hazardous waste is generated?
Do you agree that any of these hazardous wastes may have an effect on
workers’ health?
Do you agree that tuberculosis, pneumonitis, pneumonoconiosis, etc., could
be caused by biological hazards?
Do you agree that your workplace lacks good environmental hygiene?
Table 2
Demographic Information of the Participants.
Variable
Gender
Male
Female
Age
18–30
31–42
43–51
52 and above
Educational level
Professional Degree
Bachelor or Equivalent
Master or Equivalent
Doctoral or Equivalent
Work experience
Less than 2 years
From 2 to 5 years
From 5 to 10 years
More than 10 years
Not an oil and gas worker
4
Frequency (N = 327)
Percentage (100%)
298
29
91.13
8.87
67
172
76
12
20.5
52.6
23.2
3.7
34
211
76
6
10.4
64.5
23.2
1.8
45
71
91
107
13
13.8
21.7
27.7
32.7
4.0
C. Benson et al.
Safety Science 140 (2021) 105284
Fig. 2. Occupational health hazards in the oil and gas industry.
diseases are therefore identified to have short-term health effects on
workers, e.g., Headache, Airborne pathogens (common cold), Eye irri
tation, skin irritation, and skin burn. In contrast, others have long-term
effects on workers’ health, such as Leukemia, respiratory disorder,
hearing loss, hand-arm vibration syndrome, hypertension, etc. See Fig. 3
originating from the flow pipe’s vibration, compressor engine sound,
high temperature, wet floor (slips and trips), heat radiation from the
Plant, and working in a confined space. Physical risks, such as hearing
loss, skin burning, hand-arm vibration syndrome, and heart stroke, are
associated with health effects. However, this study’s findings are similar
to the observation made by (Beshir, 1994, Donoghue et al., 2000, Lim,
2002). Chemical hazards, which contribute to 23% of the risks, are the
other common occupational hazards affecting workers in the oil and gas
industry. This study shows that corrosion agents, drilling fluid/addi
tives, mud pits, storage tanks, cementing, completion and simulation
processes, oil and gas well production, and refining processes are the
origin of hazards. Health effects on workers are respiratory disease,
leukaemia, asphyxiate, eye and skin irritation, headaches, and rashes
etc. (Tsuchiya, 1978, Aitio, 2003).
Psychosocial hazards, often available in the oil and gas industry,
arise from overloaded work pressure, site isolation, workplace violence,
lack of support at work, emotional labour, prolonged hours of work,
shift duty, or call duty schedules. In some cases, monotony/boredom
obtainable in some sectional operations marked with repetitive plans.
This hazard was 18%, contributing to workers with numerous health
effects such as anxiety disorder, depression (mood), hypertension, and
cardiovascular diseases. This study’s findings are in line with the pre
vious research of (Giovanni 2010; Steptoe & Kivimäki, 2012; Tobiasi,
2014). Finally, biological hazards are reported as the least 3% hazard
5. Discussion
This paper aims to identify the health hazards and their origins in the
oil and gas industry and the health threats associated with workers. The
study shows that 91.13% of male employees are more than 8.87% of
females in the Nigerian oil and gas industry. Thus, this is not surprising
considering the nature of the work involved in the industry. This is also
aligned with the results in the analysis (Eyayo, 2014). The study found
that workers accepted that they were exposed to various occupational
hazards, which can be generally defined as chemical, physical, psy
chosocial, ergonomic, and biological hazards. Ergonomic hazards,
which occur at 30%, are the highest incidence hazards identified by
workers. Undoubtedly, ergonomic hazards result in diseases such as
musculoskeletal disorders, cumulative trauma disorders, stiffness, and
loss of coordination. This research outcome is in line with past studies
(Whitely & Plant, 2000; John et al., 2019).
Among the workplace threats workers face in their operational
environment, physical hazards were 26%. However, the hazard reported
Fig. 3. Occupational health risks in the oil and gas industry.
5
C. Benson et al.
Safety Science 140 (2021) 105284
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6. Conclusion
The description of the various health hazards and their origins in the
oil and gas industry and the risk associated with workers’ health, taking
into account this research aims, concludes that there are different
occupational hazards in oil and gas’s operating environment. Chemical,
physical, psychosocial, ergonomic, and biological hazards are among
these. From the research results, workers in the industry are exposed to
various hazards, resulting in different health challenges. It is noted that
most of the hazards presented in the industry have short-term health
effects on workers, such as Headache, Airborne pathogens (common
cold), E
