Description
This exercise will lead you a little further down the trail with respect to activities in our class. This exercise is an introductory exercise where you will sketch a cross-section of the Earth following the directions (pdf) given using colored pencils, a ruler (metric), and paper. The paper can be a roll of adding machine paper (they are sold at WalMart or any office supply store and one roll would be enough for several people) OR feel free to tape several pieces of typing paper together (short side to short side is best) to form a suitable length for your sketch. Print the directions out and answer the questions (suggested answers are included at the end! so its not likely you’ll miss them) or submit them as written responses, but please indicate the questions you are answering. Your submittal should be done as two files: 1) Your completed cross-section (make it pretty!) and 2) answers to the questions at the end of the assignment. Make sure your images are taken from close enough to show enough suitable detail. Your files are attached below.*Note: the resource table/chart referenced in the instructions is page 10 on the esrt file.
Unformatted Attachment Preview
Planet Earth in Cross Section
By Michael Osborn Fayetteville-Manlius HS
Objectives
Devise a model of the layers of the Earth to scale.
Background
Planet Earth is organized into layers of varying thickness. This solid, rocky planet
becomes denser as one travels into its interior. Gravity has caused the planet to
differentiate, meaning that denser material have been pulled towards Earth’s center.
Relatively less dense material migrates to the surface. What follows is a brief description1
of each layer beginning at the center of the Earth and working out towards the
atmosphere.
Inner Core – The solid innermost sphere of the Earth, about 1271 kilometers in radius.
Examination of meteorites has led geologists to infer that the inner core is composed of
iron and nickel.
Outer Core – A layer surrounding the inner core that is about 2270 kilometers thick and
which has the properties of a liquid.
Mantle – A solid, 2885-kilometer thick layer of ultra-mafic rock located below the crust.
This is the thickest layer of the earth.
Asthenosphere – A partially melted layer of ultra-mafic rock in the mantle situated
below the lithosphere. Tectonic plates slide along this layer.
Lithosphere – The solid outer portion of the Earth that is capable of movement. The
lithosphere is a rock layer composed of the crust (felsic continental crust and mafic ocean
crust) and the portion of the mafic upper mantle situated above the asthenosphere.
Hydrosphere – Refers to the water portion at or near Earth’s surface. The hydrosphere
is primarily composed of oceans, but also includes, lakes, streams and groundwater.
Atmosphere – the layer of gas that surrounds our planet. Earth’s atmosphere is
composed primarily of nitrogen and is broken down into distinctive layers based on
temperature profiles.
Troposphere – A 10 to 12-kilometer layer of the atmosphere next to the earth’s surface
in which temperature generally decreases rapidly with altitude and clouds form.
Stratosphere – The layer above the troposphere in which temperature increases with an
increase in elevation. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer.
Mesosphere – The layer above the stratosphere in which temperature decreases with
altitude.
Thermosphere – the outermost layer of the atmosphere located above the mesosphere.
In this layer, temperature rapidly increases with altitude.
In this lab a model of the layers of the earth will be constructed to scale using
cash register tape. The tape will represent a “column” of the Earth from its center to the
outermost portion of its atmosphere. This cross-section model will be constructed to a
scale of 1 centimeter equal to 100 kilometers or 1:10,000, 000. The ratio of 1 to
1
Adapted from Tarbuck and Lutgens (1990) and Jackson and Bates (1984)
10,000,00 means that one unit of measure on a ruler is equal to 10,000,000 units of
measure on a map or scale model. If there are 10,000,000 centimeters in 100 kilometers,
then 1 centimeter is equivalent to 100 kilometers.
Note at this scale one centimeter of register tape equals 100 kilometers. The average
width of a line drawn by a sharp pencil varies from 0.05 to 0.08 cm. Therefore the width
of a pencil used to draw layers will range in scale from 5 to 8 kilometers.
Method
1. Cut a 90 cm piece of register tape. You may wish to secure each end of the paper to a
table top with a piece of tape
2. Use a ruler and neatly draw a line perpendicular to the length of the tape roughly 10
centimeters from one end. This will be the starting line for all the layers.
3. Calculate the scale distances for the solid portion of the Earth and note it in the table
below. To do this, divide the average thickness of a layer by 100 and round to the
nearest tenth. Here is an example:
The radius of the inner core is 1276km.Thus 1276/100 = equals a 12.7 cm thick layer
drawn on the register tape. Note the scale distances for all the layers on the data table
below.
Layer
Inner Core
Outer Core
Mantle
Asthenosphere
Lithosphere
Avg. Thickness
1271 km
2270 km
2885 km
200 km
100 km
Scale in Centimeters
___12.7 cm_
__________
__________
__________
__________
4. Using a pencil mark the layers of the Earth onto the register tape based on your
calculations. Begin from the center of the earth and add each successive layer in
order. Label each layer.
5. Calculate the scale distances for the atmosphere using the table below. Draw the
layers of the atmosphere by marking the boundaries or “pauses.” Use the outer edge
of the lithosphere as a starting point.
Boundary
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
Avg. Thickness
12 km
50 km
80 km
140 km
Scale Distance in Centimeters
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
6. Refer to the background information in this lab and note the composition of the inner
core, outer core, mantle, asthenosphere and lithosphere on to the model.
7. Refer to page 10 of the E.S.R.T. Note on to the model the temperature of the Earth’s
interior at 1000 km intervals.
8. Refer to page 10 of the E.S.R.T. Note on to the model the density of the inner core,
outer core and mantle.
9. Color the inner core yellow, the outer core orange, the mantle red, the asthenosphere
light brown and lightly pencil shade the lithosphere. Color the troposphere light blue
the stratosphere pink, the mesosphere dark blue and thermosphere violet. Color the
remaining space black.
What to Turn In
• Model (neatly folded or rolled up with name visible on outside) 30 points:
10 points for accuracy; 10 points for coloring and labels; 10 points for neatness
• Answers to questions.
Planet Earth In Cross Section Questions
Directions – Answer the following questions using the model, a ruler, a calculator & the
Earth Science Reference Tables. Responses will be neatly written on a separate sheet of
paper using complete sentences. Point values for each question are in parentheses.
Observation/Measurement Questions
1.
List the layers of the solid Earth from least dense to most dense. (4)
2.
What is the main composition of the Earth? (2)
3.
Measure the model using a metric ruler. What is the radial thickness of the solid
earth in kilometers? (2)
4.
The actual radius of the Earth is 6,378 km. What is the percent error for the
measurement from question #2? Show all work and circle the final answer. (4)
5.
Analyze the scale model and determine two or more possible sources of error
assuming that the scale distances are correct. (4)
6.
Mount Everest is the tallest mountain on Earth, rising 8,850 meters above sea
level. How high (in centimeters) would it appear to be on this scale model?
Describe its appearance relative to the rest of the model. (4)
7.
The average depth of the ocean is 4 kilometers. Describe where this would fit on
the model and how thick would it be as a layer drawn to scale. (4)
8.
The Earth is approximately 40,000 kilometers in circumference. What percentage
of the Earth’s circumference is represented by the width of the register tape? (4)
Inference Questions
1.
What causes the layers of the Earth to be ordered by density?
2.
Examine the model and determine the layer in which life on earth exists.
Describe the thickness of this layer relative to the radius of the Earth.
3.
The structure of the earth is concentric layers of increasing density. Based on
this observation did the Earth form by the deposition of rocks forming layers
or by the collection of particles of differing densities in space? Describe the
process that would have resulted in the structure of the Earth.
4.
Given that the Earth is a rocky body orbiting in space, why is the change in
temperature greatest within the asthenosphere?
1.
2.
It was very helpful to have a completed model to use as a standard.
Demonstrate that the layers are drawn in an accumulated fashion as opposed to
drawing each layer from the center of the earth.
Method #4 – Have student carefully look at the tip of their ball point pen then
describe 5 to 8 kilometers in local terms (i.e. its from here to the mall – I used
from the edge of our classroom windows to hill roughly 6 kilometers distant.
Fortunately it was a clear day in Central New York!)
Atmosphere: note that the lines that separate layers are referred to as “pauses.”
Be sure they all use the same color scheme. At some point after all the models are
completed the following nifty thing can be done. Stack the models. Poke a pin
through the midpoint of the “center of the earth.” Attach to a bulletin board.
Spread out the models like a fan. One could spread them out in all directions to
get the full diameter of the earth. Compare this to the earth in space poster that
every good earth scientist has hanging in their classroom and talk about scale, size
of mtns. etc (but only for a few minutes because that’s old syllabus).
I spent some time at the end discussing why earth systems at the surface are
fragile, the idea of interfaces, how the sun is the dominant source of energy and
that the surface is an interface with the sun and the rest of the universe, etc.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Suggested Answers to Questions – responses could be but are not limited to 😉
1.
The layers of the solid Earth from least dense to most dense are: lithosphere,
asthenosphere, mantle, outer core, inner core.
2.
The Earth is mainly composed of mafic, igneous rock.
3.
Answers will vary – the model of the solid Earth should be approximately 63
centimeters in length.
4.
Answers will vary. Most students construct models with 2% error.
5.
Error results from the limitation of tools and student technique. Themetric
rulers used measure to within a millimeter. So all measurement are accurate to
within +/- 10 kilometers. The pencil width is equal to 7 kilometers. So if a
student constructs the model using 10 pencil lines then the potential for erro
could be as much as 170 kilometers even if their technique is perfect. If a
student does not place the ruler perpendicular to the width of the paper then
each successive plot or measurement will also be off.
6.
Mount Everest is 8.885 kilometers of 0.08 centimeters to scale – less than the
width of a sharp pencil. Mount Everest would not be visible on this model.
7.
If the average depth of the ocean is 4 kilometers than it would be 0.04
centimeters on the model. This would be half the thickness of a pencil line and
therefore wouldnot be visible on the model.
8.
The answer depends on the width of the tape. Most answers are
apprioximately 2%.
Inference questions
1. Gravity!
2. The pencil line that separates the lithosphere from the atmosphere is the area
where life as we currently understand it exists. This layer is very thing compared
to the radius of the Earth.
3. Deposition of sediments causes rocks to form in layers. The Earth is in layers of
increasing density. It is unlikely that the earth formed by concentric layers of
deposits with increasing layers. It makes more sense that a group of rocks with
different densities clumped together. Gravity pulled the most dense particles to
the interior.
4. The interior of the Earth is hot. Space is cold. The greatest energy transfer is
occurring in the outer most layers of the Earth.
The University of the State of New York • THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT • Albany, New York 12234 • www.nysed.gov
Reference Tables for
Physical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE
Radioactive Decay Data
Specific Heats of Common Materials
RADIOACTIVE DISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE
(years)
ISOTOPE
14
Potassium-40
40
Uranium-238
238
206
Rubidium-87
87
87
C
3
14
Carbon-14
5.7 × 10
N
40
K
Ar
9
1.3 × 10
40
Ca
U
Rb
9
Pb
4.5 × 10
Sr
4.9 × 10
10
Equations
Eccentricity =
Gradient =
distance between foci
length of major axis
MATERIAL
SPECIFIC HEAT
(Joules/gram • °C)
Liquid water
Solid water (ice)
Water vapor
Dry air
Basalt
Granite
Iron
Copper
Lead
4.18
2.11
2.00
1.01
0.84
0.79
0.45
0.38
0.13
Properties of Water
change in field value
distance
Heat energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
change in value
time
Heat energy gained during vaporization . . . . . 2260 J/g
Rate of change =
Heat energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
Heat energy released during condensation . . . 2260 J/g
mass
Density =
volume
Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 g/mL
Average Chemical Composition
of Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere
ELEMENT
(symbol)
Oxygen (O)
Silicon (Si)
Aluminum (Al)
Iron (Fe)
Calcium (Ca)
Sodium (Na)
Magnesium (Mg)
Potassium (K)
Nitrogen (N)
Hydrogen (H)
Other
HYDROSPHERE
TROPOSPHERE
Percent by mass
CRUST
Percent by volume
Percent by volume
Percent by volume
46.10
28.20
8.23
5.63
4.15
2.36
2.33
2.09
94.04
0.88
0.48
0.49
1.18
1.11
0.33
1.42
33.0
21.0
78.0
0.91
0.07
2011 EDITION
This edition of the Earth Science Reference Tables should be used in the
classroom beginning in the 2011–12 school year. The first examination for
which these tables will be used is the January 2012 Regents Examination in
Physical Setting/Earth Science.
66.0
1.0
1.0
Eurypterus remipes
New York State Fossil
at
Pl
u
ea
(
Key
)
ds
n
la
p
U
Tug Hill
Plateau
S
e
wr
a
t. L
International boundary
State boundary
Landscape region boundary
ds
Adirondack
Mountains
Lo
an
wl
The Catskills
e
nc
Major geographic province boundary
Allegheny Plateau
Erie-Ontario Lowlands
(Plains)
Lake Ontario
Interior Lowlands
Grenville Province
(Highlands)
Interior
Lowlands
Generalized Landscape Regions of New York State
Huds
Lake Erie
Ap
p
ala
c
h
ia
n
Champlain Lowlands
ew
En
(H gla
i
gh nd
l
P
a
nd ro
v
N
0
20 40 60
Kilometers
80
Miles
0 10 20 30 40 50
tic
n
a
l
At
W
S
N
e
lain
P
l
a
st
Coa
nds
ighla
H
n
o
H uds
rong
tan P
t
a
h
Man
o nM
o
h
a
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k Lo
wlands
Taco
n
i
c
M
ounta
ins
N
Lo ewa
w
l
an rk
ds
in
c
s)
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
2
E
79°
JAMESTOWN
ERIE
BUFFALO
NIAGARA FALLS
78°
78°
77°
SYRACUSE
UTICA
Moha
Rive r
Intensely metamorphosed rocks
(regional metamorphism about 1,000 m.y.a.)
}
limestones, shales, sandstones, and dolostones
74°
NEW YORK
CITY
41°
}
RS
EY
Dominantly
metamorphosed
rocks
ORDOVICIAN
CAMBRIAN
}
}
Dominantly
sedimentary
origin
CAMBRIAN and EARLY ORDOVICIAN sandstones and dolostones
moderately to intensely metamorphosed east of the Hudson River
CAMBRIAN and ORDOVICIAN (undifferentiated) quartzites, dolostones, marbles, and schists
intensely metamorphosed; includes portions of the Taconic Sequence and Cortlandt Complex
TACONIC SEQUENCE sandstones, shales, and slates
slightly to intensely metamorphosed rocks of CAMBRIAN through MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN ages
MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC gneisses, quartzites, and marbles
Lines are generalized structure trends.
MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC anorthositic rocks
JE
KINGSTON
ALBANY
R iv e r
SLIDE MT.
W
NE
MT. MARCY
74°
}
75°
wk
OLD FORGE
MASSENA
are
CRETACEOUS and PLEISTOCENE (Epoch) weakly consolidated to unconsolidated gravels, sands, and clays
LATE TRIASSIC and EARLY JURASSIC conglomerates, red sandstones, red shales, basalt, and diabase (Palisades sill)
PENNSYLVANIAN and MISSISSIPPIAN conglomerates, sandstones, and shales
DEVONIAN
limestones, shales, sandstones, and conglomerates
SILURIAN also contains salt, gypsum, and hematite.
SILURIAN
76°
Susquehanna
BINGHAMTON
ITHACA
P E N N S Y L V A N I A
77°
WATERTOWN
76°
OSWEGO
LAKES
44°
ELMIRA
FINGER
ROCHESTER
LAKE ONTARIO
elevation 75 m
modified from
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
1989
75°
law
GEOLOGIC PERIODS AND ERAS IN NEW YORK
42°
LAKE
elevation 175 m
43°
79°
ar a River
ag
Ni
e
nc
er
iv
Generalized Bedrock Geology of New York State
Ge
r
ve
Ri
ee
ne
s
S
t.
La
w
re
R
R iv e r
73°
45°
PLATTSBURGH
AIN
MPL
44°
CH
A
43°
0
0
20
40
60
20 40 60 80
Kilometers
Kilometers
80
W
Miles
Miles
20 30 40 50
0 100 2010 30
40 50
73°30′
41°
72°
S
N
E
ATLANTIC OCEAN
UND
40°30′
73°
D
ISLAN
LONG
RIVERHEAD
ND SO
ISLA
G
73°
N
41°
LO
42°
LAKE
R
r
iv
e
on
ds
Hu
Hu ds on
VERMONT
MASSACHUSETTS
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
CONNECTICUT
45°
De
3
Rive r
Surface Ocean Currents
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
4
Mi
d
Eurasian
Plate
n
ia
ou
nd
I
the
st e
e
as
g
t
hw Rid
t
Ind
u
ia n
So
Ridg
e
a
Tr ria n a
e n ch
Fiji Plate
st
Ea
Convergent plate boundary
(subduction zone)
subducting
plate
overriding
plate
Antarctic
Plate
Nazca
Plate
r
Sandwich
Plate
Mantle
hot spot
Bouvet
Hot Spot
St. Helena
Hot Spot
African
Plate
Eurasian
Plate
Iceland
Hot Spot
Complex or uncertain
plate boundary
Scotia
Plate
Canary
Islands
Hot Spot
Mi
d
At
la
n
t
i
cR
idg
e
South
American
Plate
an
ibbe
Car late
P
Pe
Galapagos
Hot Spot
Yellowstone
Hot Spot
Cocos
Plate
Easter Island
Hot Spot
Pacific
Plate
Hawaii
Hot Spot
San Andreas
Fault
Juan de
Fuca Plate
Divergent plate boundary
(usually broken by transform
faults along mid-ocean ridges)
Tasman
Hot Spot
To n g a
Tr e n c h
North American
Plate
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Tectonic Plates
h
Aleutian Trenc
Indian-Australian
Plate
M
Philippine
Plate
Transform plate boundary
(transform fault)
NOTE: Not all mantle hot spots, plates, and
boundaries are shown.
Relative motion at
plate boundary
Antarctic
Plate
S
Key
frican Rif
st A
Ea
t
ian
ab
Ar late
P
idge
dian Ridge
-In
Pa
cifi
cR
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
hile Tren
u-C
ch
5
C
Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust
r
nd/o
na
tio ation
c
pa ent
om em
C
Relationship of Transported
Particle Size to Water Velocity
Depo
s
and B ition
uria
l
100.0
Boulders
25.6
n
r Pressure
t and/o
Hea tamorphism
e
M
IGNEOUS
ROCK
Sand
0.01
0.006
Silt
0.001
Clay
at
0.0001
1000
500
100
50
li
10
5
So
ic
di f
1
0.5
g
MAGMA
0.2
0.1
0.05
l ti n
Pebbles
0.1
0.01
Me
1.0
0.0004
io
METAMORPHIC
ROCK
n
6.4
n
lift) rosio
(U p
&E
in g
r
e
th
Wea
lting
Me
PARTICLE DIAMETER (cm)
( U p l if t )
n
Weathering & Erosio
M e lt i n g
e
ss ur
H
e
a
t
a
nd/or Pre m
is
M e ta m or p h
(U
We
athe plift)
ring
& Ero
sio
E r o s i on
SEDIMENTARY
ROCK
Cobbles
10.0
SEDIMENTS
STREAM VELOCITY (cm/s)
This generalized graph shows the water velocity
needed to maintain, but not start, movement. Variations
occur due to differences in particle density and shape.
noncrystalline
Basaltic glass
Pumice
Scoria
Vesicular
andesite
Rhyolite
Andesite
Vesicular basalt
Basalt
INTRUSIVE
(Plutonic)
Diabase
Diorite
Granite
Gabbro
Peridotite
Pegmatite
Dunite
Vesicular rhyolite
CRYSTAL
SIZE
10 mm 1 mm
less than
or
to
1 mm
larger 10 mm
EXTRUSIVE
(Volcanic)
Obsidian
(usually appears black)
LIGHTER
COLOR
DARKER
LOWER
DENSITY
HIGHER
FELSIC
(rich in Si, Al)
MINERAL COMPOSITION
(relative by volume)
CHARACTERISTICS
IGNEOUS ROCKS
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION
Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification
TEXTURE
Glassy
Nonvesicular
Vesicular
(gas
pockets)
Fine
Coarse
Nonvesicular
Very
coarse
MAFIC
(rich in Fe, Mg)
COMPOSITION
100%
100%
Potassium
feldspar
(pink to white)
75%
Quartz
(clear to
white)
75%
Plagioclase feldspar
(white to gray)
50%
50%
Pyroxene
(green)
Biotite
(black)
25%
Amphibole
(black)
0%
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
Olivine
(green)
25%
0%
6
Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification
INORGANIC LAND-DERIVED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
TEXTURE
GRAIN SIZE
COMPOSITION
Pebbles, cobbles,
and/or boulders
embedded in sand,
silt, and/or clay
Clastic
(fragmental)
Sand
(0.006 to 0.2 cm)
Silt
(0.0004 to 0.006 cm)
Clay
(less than 0.0004 cm)
Mostly
quartz,
feldspar, and
clay minerals;
may contain
fragments of
other rocks
and minerals
COMMENTS
ROCK NAME
Rounded fragments
Conglomerate
Angular fragments
Breccia
Fine to coarse
Sandstone
Very fine grain
Siltstone
Compact; may split
easily
MAP SYMBOL
. . . . .
. . . .
. . . . .
. . . .
Shale
CHEMICALLY AND/OR ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
TEXTURE
GRAIN SIZE
Crystalline
Fine
to
coarse
crystals
COMPOSITION
COMMENTS
Halite
Gypsum
Microscopic to
very coarse
Bioclastic
MAP SYMBOL
Rock salt
Crystals from
chemical
precipitates
and evaporites
Rock gypsum
Dolostone
Dolomite
Crystalline or
bioclastic
ROCK NAME
Calcite
Precipitates of biologic
origin or cemented shell
fragments
Carbon
Compacted
plant remains
Limestone
Bituminous coal
Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification
TEXTURE
GRAIN
SIZE
COMPOSITION
TYPE OF
METAMORPHISM
Medium
to
coarse
AMPHIBOLE
GARNET
PYROXENE
Fine
to
medium
Regional
(Heat and
pressure
increases)
MICA
QUARTZ
FELDSPAR
MINERAL
ALIGNMENT
NONFOLIATED
BANDING
FOLIATED
Fine
COMMENTS
ROCK NAME
Low-grade
metamorphism of shale
Slate
Foliation surfaces shiny
from microscopic mica
crystals
Phyllite
Platy mica crystals visible
from metamorphism of clay
or feldspars
Schist
High-grade metamorphism;
mineral types segregated
into bands
Gneiss
Fine
Carbon
Regional
Metamorphism of
bituminous coal
Fine
Various
minerals
Contact
(heat)
Various rocks changed by
heat from nearby
magma/lava
Hornfels
Metamorphism of
quartz sandstone
Quartzite
Metamorphism of
limestone or dolostone
Marble
Pebbles may be distorted
or stretched
Metaconglomerate
Quartz
Fine
to
coarse
MAP SYMBOL
Anthracite coal
Regional
Calcite and/or
dolomite
or
contact
Coarse
Various
minerals
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
7
GEOLOGIC HISTORY
Eon
Era
Period
PHANEROZOIC
QUATERNARY
CENOZOIC
L
A
T
E
PROTEROZOIC
0.01
PLEISTOCENE 1.8
PLIOCENE
23.0
OLIGOCENE
33.9
EOCENE
55.8
PALEOCENE
65.5
Humans, mastodonts, mammoths
Large carnivorous mammals
Abundant grazing mammals
Earliest grasses
Many modern groups of mammals
Mass extinction of dinosaurs, ammonoids, and
many land plants
CRETACEOUS
Earliest flowering plants
Diverse bony fishes
EARLY
146
LATE
MIDDLE
JURASSIC
Earliest birds
Abundant dinosaurs and ammonoids
EARLY
200
E
A
R Oceanic oxygen
L begins to enter
Y the atmosphere
MIDDLE
EARLY
251
LATE
MIDDLE
PALEOZOIC
CARBONIFEROUS
Oceanic oxygen
produced by
cyanobacteria
combines with
iron, forming
iron oxide layers
on ocean floor
M
I
D
D
L
E Earliest stromatolites
Oldest microfossils
E
A
R
L
Y
Earliest mammals
LATE
TRIASSIC
EARLY
318
MIDDLE
EARLY
359
Extensive coal-forming forests
Abundant amphibians
Large and numerous scale trees and seed ferns
(vascular plants); earliest reptiles
Earliest amphibians and plant seeds
Extinction of many marine organisms
MIDDLE
Earth’s first forests
Earliest ammonoids and sharks
Abundant fish
416
LATE
SILURIAN
Mammal-like reptiles
LATE
EARLY
Evidence of biological
carbon
Mass extinction of many land and marine
organisms (including trilobites)
Abundant reptiles
LATE
MISSISSIPPIAN
Earliest dinosaurs
299
LATE
EARLY
PENNSYLVANIAN
DEVONIAN
EARLY
444
Earliest insects
Earliest land plants and animals
Abundant eurypterids
LATE
Oldest known rocks
ORDOVICIAN
Invertebrates dominant
Earth’s first coral reefs
MIDDLE
488
LATE
Estimated time of origin
of Earth and solar system
MIDDLE
CAMBRIAN
EARLY
542
580
(Index fossils not drawn to scale)
B
Bedrock
LATE
EARLY
4600
5.3
MIOCENE
MESOZOIC
M First
I sexually
reproducing
D organisms
D
L
E
L
A
T
E
4000
A
Sediment
HOLOCENE 0
PERMIAN
ARCHEAN
P R E C A M B R I A N
3000
NEOGENE
PALEOGENE
1000
2000
Life on Earth
Million years ago
Million years ago
0
500
Epoch
NY Rock
Record
C
1300
D
E
F
G
H
I
Burgess shale fauna (diverse soft-bodied organisms)
Earliest fishes
Extinction of many primitive marine organisms
Earliest trilobites
Great diversity of life-forms with shelly parts
Ediacaran fauna (first multicellular, soft-bodied
marine organisms)
Abundant stromatolites
J
K
L
M
N
Cryptolithus
Centroceras
Tetragraptus
Valcouroceras
Eucalyptocrinus
Coelophysis
Stylonurus
Hexameroceras
Manticoceras
Dicellograptus
Eurypterus
Ctenocrinus
Phacops
Elliptocephala
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
8
OF NEW YORK STATE
Time Distribution of Fossils
Important Geologic
Events in New York
(including important fossils of New York)
The center of each lettered circle indicates the approximate time of
existence of a specific index fossil (e.g. Fossil A lived at the end
of the Early Cambrian).
S
I
H
E
BIRDS
MAMMALS
VASCULAR PLANTS
EURYPTERIDS
Q
N
P
M
BRACHIOPODS
GASTROPODS
Pangaea begins to break up
232 million years ago
Alleghenian orogeny caused by
collision of North America and
Africa along transform margin,
forming Pangaea
R
X
Catskill delta forms
Erosion of Acadian Mountains
Acadian orogeny caused by collision of
North America and Avalon and closing
of remaining part of Iapetus Ocean
Z
V
Y
U
D
T
J
359 million years ago
Salt and gypsum deposited in evaporite basins
K
B
119 million years ago
Intrusion of Palisades sill
CORALS
CRINOIDS
G
59 million years ago
Sands and clays underlying Long Island and
Staten Island deposited on margin of Atlantic
Ocean
Initial opening of Atlantic Ocean
North America and Africa separate
PLACODERM FISH
F
GRAPTOLITES
C
Advance and retreat of last continental ice
Dome-like uplift of Adirondack region begins
L
TRILOBITES
AMMONOIDS
DINOSAURS
NAUTILOIDS
O
Inferred Positions of
Earth’s Landmasses
Erosion of Taconic Mountains; Queenston delta
forms
Taconian orogeny caused by closing
of western part of Iapetus Ocean and
collision between North America and
volcanic island arc
W
458 million years ago
Widespread deposition over most of New York
along edge of Iapetus Ocean
A
Rifting and initial opening of Iapetus Ocean
Erosion of Grenville Mountains
Grenville orogeny: metamorphism of
bedrock now exposed in the Adirondacks
and Hudson Highlands
O
P
Q
R
Mastodont
Cooksonia
Naples Tree
Beluga Whale
Bothriolepis
Aneurophyton
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
S
Condor
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Cystiphyllum
Maclurites
Eospirifer
Mucrospirifer
Lichenaria
Pleurodictyum
Platyceras
ADU (2011)
9
Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
10
Earthquake P-Wave and S-Wave Travel Time
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
S
17
TRAVEL TIME (min)
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
P
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
EPICENTER DISTANCE (× 103 km)
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
11
Dewpoint (°C)
Dry-Bulb
Temperature (°C)
– 20
–18
–16
–14
–12
–10
–8
–6
–4
–2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)
0
– 20
–18
–16
–14
–12
–10
–8
–6
–4
–2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
1
– 33
– 28
– 24
– 21
–18
–14
–12
–10
–7
–5
–3
–1
1
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
19
21
23
25
27
29
2
– 36
– 28
– 22
–18
–14
–12
–8
–6
–3
–1
1
3
6
8
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
– 29
– 22
–17 – 29
–13 – 20
– 9 –15 – 24
– 6 –11 –17
– 4 – 7 –11 –19
–1 – 4 – 7 –13 – 21
1 – 2 – 5 – 9 –14
4
1 – 2 – 5 – 9 –14 – 28
6
4
1 – 2 – 5 – 9 –16
9
6
4
1 – 2 – 5 –10 –17
11
9
7
4
1
–1 – 6 –10 –17
13
11
9
7
4
2 – 2 – 5 –10 –19
–2 – 5 –10 –19
15
14
12
10
7
4
2
3
–1 – 5 –10 –19
17
16
14
12
10
8
5
6
2
–1 – 5 –10 –18
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
9
6
3
0 –4 –9
22
20
18
17
15
13
11
11
9
7
4
1 –3
24
22
21
19
17
16
14
14
12
10
8
5
1
26
24
23
21
19
18
16
Relative Humidity (%)
Dry-Bulb
Temperature (°C)
– 20
–18
–16
–14
–12
–10
–8
–6
–4
–2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)
0
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
1
28
40
48
55
61
66
71
73
77
79
81
83
85
86
87
88
88
89
90
91
91
92
92
92
93
93
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
11
23
33
41
48
54
58
63
67
70
72
74
76
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
86
13
20
32
37
45
51
56
59
62
65
67
69
71
72
74
75
76
77
78
79
11
20
28
36
42
46
51
54
57
60
62
64
66
68
69
70
71
72
1
11
20
27
35
39
43
48
50
54
56
58
60
62
64
65
66
6
14
22
28
33
38
41
45
48
51
53
55
57
59
61
10
17
24
28
33
37
40
44
46
49
51
53
55
6
13
19
25
29
33
36
40
42
45
47
49
4
10
16
21
26
30
33
36
39
42
44
2
8
14
19
23
27
30
34
36
39
1
7
12
17
21
25
28
31
34
1
6
11
15
20
23
26
29
5
10
14
18
21
25
4
9
13
17
20
4
9
12
16
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
12
Pressure
Temperature
110
Water boils
220
100
200
90
180
80
160
70
140
60
120
50
100
40
30
80
Room temperature
20
60
10
40
Water freezes
0
20
0
–20
–10
–20
–30
–40
–40
–60
–50
30.70
1036.0
30.60
380
370
360
1032.0
350
1028.0
30.50
30.40
30.30
340
1024.0
330
310
30.10
1016.0
30.00
1012.0
29.90
One atmosphere
300
30.20
1020.0
320
29.80
290
1008.0
29.70
280
1004.0
270
29.60
260
1000.0
250
996.0
29.40
992.0
29.30
240
230
988.0
220
29.50
29.20
29.10
984.0
Key to Weather Map Symbols
Station Model
1040.0
29.00
Station Model Explanation
980.0
28.90
976.0
28.80
+19/
972.0
28.70
.25
968.0
28.60
28
196
1
2
27
28.50
Air Masses
Present Weather
cA continental arctic
Drizzle
Rain
Smog
Hail
ThunderRain
storms showers
cP continental polar
cT continental tropical
mT maritime tropical
Snow
Sleet
Freezing
rain
Fog
Haze
Snow
showers
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
mP maritime polar
Fronts
Hurricane
Cold
Warm
Stationary
Tornado
Occluded
13
Selected
Properties of
Earth’s
Atmosphere
Planetary Wind and Moisture
Belts in the Troposphere
The drawing on the right shows the
locations of the belts near the time of an
equinox. The locations shift somewhat
with the changing latitude of the Sun’s
vertical ray. In the Northern Hemisphere,
the belts shift northward in the summer
and southward in the winter.
(Not drawn to scale)
Electromagnetic Spectrum
X rays
Gamma rays
Microwaves
Ultraviolet
Infrared
Radio waves
Decreasing wavelength
Increasing wavelength
Visible light
Violet
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
Blue
Green Yellow Orange
Red
(Not drawn to scale)
14
Characteristics of Stars
(Name in italics refers to star represented by a .)
(Stages indicate the general sequence of star development.)
1,000,000
Deneb
Luminosity
(Rate at which a star emits energy relative to the Sun)
100,000
Massive
Stars
Betelgeuse
SUPERGIANTS
Rigel
(Intermediate stage)
Spica
10,000
GIANTS
Polaris
1,000
(Intermediate stage)
Aldebaran
100
MA
IN
10
(E a
Pollux
SE
Sirius
rly QU
s ta E N
ge
C
)
Alpha Centauri
E
1
Sun
0.1
40 Eridani B
0.01
Barnard’s
Star
WHITE DWARFS
(Late stage)
0.001
Procyon B
0.0001
30,000
20,000
10,000 8,000
Small
Stars
Proxima
Centauri
6,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
Surface Temperature (K)
Blue
Blue White
White
Yellow
Orange
Red
Color
Solar System Data
Celestial
Object
Mean Distance
from Sun
(million km)
Period of
Revolution
(d=days) (y=years)
Period of
Rotation at Equator
Eccentricity
of Orbit
Equatorial
Diameter
(km)
Mass
(Earth = 1)
—
—
27 d
—
1,392,000
333,000.00
1.4
MERCURY
57.9
88 d
59 d
0.206
4,879
0.06
5.4
VENUS
108.2
224.7 d
243 d
0.007
12,104
0.82
5.2
EARTH
149.6
365.26 d
23 h 56 min 4 s
0.017
12,756
1.00
5.5
MARS
227.9
687 d
24 h 37 min 23 s
0.093
6,794
0.11
3.9
JUPITER
778.4
11.9 y
9 h 50 min 30 s
0.048
142,984
317.83
1.3
SATURN
1,426.7
29.5 y
10 h 14 min
0.054
120,536
95.16
0.7
URANUS
2,871.0
84.0 y
17 h 14 min
0.047
51,118
14.54
1.3
NEPTUNE
4,498.3
164.8 y
16 h
0.009
49,528
17.15
1.8
149.6
27.3 d
27.3 d
0.055
3,476
0.01
3.3
SUN
EARTH’S
MOON
(0.386 from Earth)
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition
Density
(g/cm3)
15
Either
Metallic luster
HARDNESS
FRACTURE
LUSTER
CLEAVAGE
Properties of Common Minerals
DISTINGUISHING
CHARACTERISTICS
USE(S)
COMPOSITION*
MINERAL NAME
1–2
silver to
gray
black streak,
greasy feel
pencil lead,
lubricants
C
Graphite
2.5
metallic
silver
gray-black streak, cubic cleavage,
density = 7.6 g/cm3
ore of lead,
batteries
PbS
Galena
5.5 – 6.5
black to
silver
black streak,
magnetic
ore of iron,
steel
Fe3O4
Magnetite
6.5
brassy
yellow
green-black streak,
(fool’s gold)
ore of
sulfur
FeS2
Pyrite
5.5 – 6.5
or 1
metallic silver or
earthy red
red-brown streak
ore of iron,
jewelry
Fe2O3
Hematite
white to
green
greasy feel
ceramics,
paper
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
Talc
yellow to
amber
white-yellow streak
sulfuric acid
S
Sulfur
1
2
Nonmetallic luster
COMMON
COLORS
2
white to
pink or gray
easily scratched
by fingernail
plaster of paris,
drywall
CaSO4•2H2O
Selenite gypsum
2 – 2.5
colorless to
yellow
flexible in
thin sheets
paint, roofing
KAl3Si3O10(OH)2
Muscovite mica
2.5
colorless to
white
cubic cleavage,
salty taste
food additive,
melts ice
NaCl
Halite
2.5 – 3
black to
dark brown
flexible in
thin sheets
construction
materials
K(Mg,Fe)3
AlSi3O10(OH)2
Biotite mica
3
colorless
or variable
bubbles with acid,
rhombohedral cleavage
cement,
lime
CaCO3
Calcite
3.5
colorless
or variable
bubbles with acid
when powdered
building
stones
CaMg(CO3)2
Dolomite
4
colorless or
variable
cleaves in
4 directions
hydrofluoric
acid
CaF2
Fluorite
5–6
black to
dark green
cleaves in
2 directions at 90°
mineral collections,
jewelry
(Ca,Na) (Mg,Fe,Al)
(Si,Al)2O6
Pyroxene
(commonly augite)
5.5
black to
dark green
cleaves at
56° and 124°
6
white to
pink
cleaves in
2 directions at 90°
ceramics,
glass
KAlSi3O8
Potassium feldspar
(commonly orthoclase)
6
white to
gray
cleaves in 2 directions,
striations visible
ceramics,
glass
(Na,Ca)AlSi3O8
Plagioclase feldspar
mineral collections, CaNa(Mg,Fe)4 (Al,Fe,Ti)3
jewelry
Si6O22(O,OH)2
Amphibole
(commonly hornblende)
6.5
green to
gray or brown
commonly light green
and granular
furnace bricks,
jewelry
(Fe,Mg)
