Description
I believe it’s important to have rules for Saudi creators on social media to ensure their content aligns with the values of Saudi culture. The new law helps protect Saudi traditions and prevents offensive or inappropriate content from being shared. This is done to make sure that social media is not used to spread harmful ideas that could damage Saudi society.The law also helps keep young people safe online by filtering out explicit or violent content. It encourages creators to think about how their content might affect viewers and encourages them to make educational and inspiring content instead. By promoting responsible content creation, the law creates a safer and more positive online environment. So, these are my reasons why I agree that the new law sets boundaries for Saudi creators on social media to protect culture, prevent harm, and create a better online spaceParagraph 1: Saudi Arabia has introduced a new law that affects social media content creators, including both Saudi and non-Saudi individuals. According to this law, content creators must obtain a permit if they want to make money through advertising on social media platforms. The permit is valid for three years and requires a fee. The main purpose of this law is to regulate and monitor the influencer industry, ensuring transparency and professionalism. By obtaining the permit, influencers can show that they follow the laws and values of the Kingdom. The law also provides legal protection for influencers and businesses involved in influencer marketing, and it establishes standard rates and contractual obligations to promote fair practices. paragraph 2: Non-Saudi residents interested in influencer marketing must be represented by specific advertising agencies and go through a two-step process. They need to acquire a permit from the Ministry of Investment before applying for the influencer permit from the General Commission for the Audiovisual Media (GCAM). The law does not apply to businesses and entities advertising their own products or services on social media platforms. This regulation creates a regulated environment for influencers in Saudi Arabia, promoting transparency, accountability, and responsible content creation. It provides a professional platform for influencers to monetize their social media presence, contributing to the industry’s growth and development.
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Chapter 4: Inductive Arguments
This chapter will cover
• The use of statistical evidence in arguments
• The reporting of statistical data
• The use of causal generalizations
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Inductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
• Evidence offers strong support ‘beyond a
reasonable doubt’
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Inductive Reasoning
Likely to be true
• Evidence is strong support but it is
not 100% certain.
• Evidence gives weight but not
certainty.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Inductive Reasoning
Using evidence
• The strength of a conclusion is based on
the quality of evidence used to support
the conclusion.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Reasoning
Inductive
Deductive
• Cycle goes over a
bump- engine misfires
• Cycle – bump – misfire
• Cycle – smooth road
– it does not misfire
• Cycle – 3rd bump-misfire
• The horn is powered
exclusively by electricity
from the battery.
• The battery is dead.
Conclusion?
Conclusion?
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Inductive Reasoning
Induction
• Drawing generalizations from known
facts – research, statistical evidence
• Exp.: If you charge more on your credit card than
you can afford, you will get yourself into debt.
• Finding truth by making observations
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Statistical Evidence: leads to the form of
inductive reasoning
Why we use statistics:
•
Control over the unknown
•
To make predictions and decisions
•
To anticipate accurate information
•
Connect patterns in our lives
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Statistical Evidence
Statistical Evidence
Leads to
Data collected by
polling and research
studies
Gallup poll
How people vote
Statistical generalizations
Inferences from
statistical
evidence
Harris poll
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How Research is Done
Three questions
1. What do I want to find out?
Characteristic of interest
2. Whom do I want to know about?
Target population
3. Whom can I study to get accurate answers?
Sample
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Sample
Members of the target population
• Must be large enough
• Must be random
• Must be representative
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Skill
Analyze the quality of statistical evidence by
noting the size, representation, and
randomness of the sample
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Sample
Reliability
1. Sample size
1,000 randomly selected individuals
2. Representative
If not it is biased
3. Significant characteristics
Sometimes difficult to know
4. Biased questions
Loaded or leading questions
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Causal Generalizations
Reasons
• Eliminate difficulties
• Prevent future problems
• Human curiosity
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Hume’s Method
Hume’s Conditions
1. X, the cause, preceded y, the
effect, in time
2. X and y are contiguous (in
contact with one another) in
time and place.
3. There is a history of (1) and
(2); that is, there is a history
of x preceding y and of x and
y being related in time and
place
Interpretation
1. If one thing causes another,
the cause must come before
the effect
2. The need for a relationship in
time and space between cause
and effect
3. Chart a tendency
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Hume’s conditions
Considerations
• “Correlation is not causation.”
• A “third-variable” could be the source of the
relationship.
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Cause and Effect
Technical Causation
• Necessary condition- condition must be present
if the effect is present
• Sufficient condition- if condition is present,
effect will definitely occur
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Stop and Think
It has been said that holding elections is a necessary
but not a sufficient condition for establishing a
democracy. What do you believe would be other
necessary factors that would become sufficient for
establishing a democratic government?
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Mill’s Analysis
John Stuart Mill
• Canons
• Foundational to controlled studies
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Mill’s Analysis
Method of Agreement
Method of Difference
•
The only difference between (Y)
happening or not is whether one
element (X ) is present
X is the only factor always
present when Y occurs:
Therefore, X causes Y
If:
• X is present then Y occurs
• X is not present then Y does not
occur
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chapter 4: Inductive Arguments
Checkup
• Uses of statistical generalizations
• Multiple causes of a problem
• Problems with statistical evidence
• Sample, target audience, characteristic of
interest
• Cause and effect- Hume and Mill’s
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Week 4| Lectures
Agenda
Reasoning Errors
Misleading Fallacies
Handling Fallacies
What are fallacies?
mistaken beliefs, esp. based on unsound arguments
Reasoning Errors
Inadequate
Misleading
Sound good
Sound logical
Adequate support
missing
Form without
substance
Lead the listener away
from the primary issue
Reasoning Errors
Inadequate reasons
Faulty Analogy
Significant differences between compared items.
o Compare a product to an experience
o Compare current experience to past
o Advice for them will work for you
The key to an accurate analogy is that the two things being
compared are similar in all significant aspects.
Stop and Think:
Is the comparison valid? Is the situation, idea, or plan similar in all aspects?
Reasoning Errors
Inadequate reasons
False Cause or Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc
“After this, therefore because of this…”
o First event causes second event without reason
o Superstitious reasoning
o Blame game
Correlation is not causation.
Reasoning Errors
Inadequate reasons
Slippery Slope or Domino Effect
Consequences of potential action predicted
but not supported
o Prediction based on speculation
Reasoning Errors
Inadequate reasons
Straw Man
Opponent’s argument distorted or
exaggerated and then easily attacked
o Position argument at extreme
Reasoning Errors
Inadequate reasons
Hasty Conclusion
Generalize with little information
o Jumping to conclusions
o Rushing to judgment
o Self-fulfilling prophecy
Reasoning Errors
Inadequate reasons
False Dilemma or False Choice
Presenting only two extreme alternatives
o No possibilities in between
o Leads to simplistic solutions
Reasoning Errors
Inadequate reasons
Begging the Question or Burden of Proof
Speaker assumes what needs to be proven
o Places the burden of proof on the listener
o Builds on an unproven assumption
o Uses a ‘loaded question’
Don’t be trapped into proving someone else’s conclusion
Reasoning Errors
Fallacies that mislead
Red Herring
Put listener on the defensive with another issue
to distract your attention from the issue.
o Children use this a lot!
Get that stick out of here
It’s not a stick. It’s a laser beam!
This fallacy gets its name from the old practice of drawing a herring-a smoked
fish- across a trail to distract hunting dogs from following a scent. The hounds are
led away from their prey.
Reasoning Errors
Fallacies that mislead
Ad Hominem or Attacking the Person
Attack personal qualities instead of the issue.
o Used to discredit someone
Reasoning Errors
Fallacies that mislead
Ad Populum or Jumping on the Bandwagon
If everyone is doing it, then it is okay.
o Keeping up with the Jones
o The in-crowd
o Why we buy products
Reasoning Errors
Fallacies that mislead
Appeal to Tradition
Reasons are not relevant to the claim
o Conform to tradition
o “We’ve always done it this way”
Reasoning Errors
Fallacies that mislead
Appeal to Pity
Follow a course of action due to compassion
o May be true but is irrelevant to the claim
Reasoning Errors
Fallacies that mislead
Equivocation
Uses the same word with two different
meanings
Skill
Recognize when reasons given to justify a conclusion
are not sufficient..
See you next time!
Week 3| Lectures
Agenda
Finding Truth
Deductive Reasoning
Syllogism
Argument Validity
Sound deduction
Detecting Assumptions?
Claim – You should be careful walking on a floor
that’s just been cleaned.
Warrant
(Reality Assumption)
Reason (premise)
The floor was just
washed, so it’s wet.
Recently washed floors are
slippery.
Based on
Warrant
(Value Assumption)
Your health/ safety is important;
avoid slipping& falling.
Knowledge/Truth?
Knowledge/Truth?
Deductive
Inductive
Aims for certainty
Gives is probabilities
General to specific
Specific to general
Deductive Reasoning
General statement → specific instance
Syllogism: premises → conclusion
• All men are mortal. (major premise)
• Socrates is a man. (minor premise)
• Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)
Deductive Reasoning
Deductive Argument Validity
Correct form (pattern) makes an argument valid (logical).
Accurate content makes it true.
When the form is valid and the content is true, the
argument is sound.
Deductive Reasoning
Is content true?
All students eat pizza.
Amira is a student at PMU.
Is form valid?
Therefore, Amira eats pizza.
Is the argument sound?
No!
Deductive Reasoning
Is content true?
All women are terrible drivers.
Amira is a woman.
Is form valid?
Therefore, Amira is a terrible driver.
Is the argument sound?
No!
Deductive Reasoning
Deductive Argument Validity
…..is about the way the premises relate to each other
and the conclusion….
Valid (but untrue)
Invalid (but true)
If there’s a rainbow, flights
• All leopards have spots.
get canceled.
• My pet gecko has spots.
There is a rainbow now.
• Therefore, my pet gecko
• Therefore, flights are
is a leopard.
canceled.
BUT premises don’t need to be true for an argument to be valid.
Deductive Reasoning
Sound Deductive Arguments
…..only if they’re valid in form and the premises are true!
Valid (and true)
Valid (and true)
Flights get canceled when • All fruits are grown from
there are extreme weather
flowers and contain seeds.
conditions.
• Tomatoes are grown from
There are extreme weather
flowers and contain seeds.
conditions now.
• Therefore, tomatoes are
• Therefore, flights are
fruits.
canceled.
Deductive Reasoning
Pattern (form)
All As are Bs.
Categorical or universal
statement
m is A.
Therefore, m is B
A
B
A statement in which
members of one
class are said
to be included in
another class.
Deductive Reasoning
Pattern (form) – conditional syllogism
If A→ then B.
Hypothetical premise
antecedent (A) + consequent (B)
Deductive Reasoning
Pattern (form) – conditional syllogism
Modus ponens
(way of affirmation)
If A, then B.
A. (affirming)
• Therefore, B.
Modus tollens
(denying the consequent)
• If A, then B.
• Not B. (denying)
• Therefore, not A.
If A, then B.
B
A
A. Therefore, B.
A
If A, then B.
B
Not B. Therefore, not A.
Deductive Reasoning
Pattern (form) – conditional syllogism
Modus ponens
If the weather forecast says
it will rain today, then I will
need an umbrella.
The weather forecast does
say it will rain today.
• Therefore, I will need an
umbrella.
Modus tollens
• If I have mokeypox, then
the test will be positive.
• The test is not positive.
• Therefore, I do not have
monkeypox.
Syllogisms: Checkup
Do you know?
•
•
•
•
•
Difference between categorical statement and
argument
Three parts of a universal syllogism
Validity/accuracy & soundness in a universal
syllogism
Three parts of a conditional syllogism
Two types of conditional syllogism
Deductive Reasoning
Enthymeme
…..a syllogism with a missing part/premise.
Use Toulmin’s method to test the logic of the reasoning!
You shouldn’t take this class – the teacher gives too much homework.
Claim: You should not take this class.
Reason: The teacher gives too much homework.
Warrant: If too much homework is given, a class should not be taken.
Let’s write it as a conditional syllogism to test the reasoning!
If a teacher gives too much homework, then a class should
not be taken.
The teacher does give too much homework.
Therefore, the class should not be taken.
Deductive Reasoning
Enthymeme
…..a syllogism with a missing part/premise.
You shouldn’t take this class – the teacher gives too much homework.
Claim: You should not take this class.
Reason: The teacher gives too much homework.
Warrant: If too much homework is given, a class should not be taken.
Clarify definitions! — Challenge the warrant!
• How much is too much homework?
• It’s useful to have homework – it helps to learn the
material!
Deductive Reasoning
True
Valid
Invalid
Sound Argument:
Correct Form
True Premises
Unsound Argument:
Incorrect Form
True Premises
False
Unsound Argument:
Correct Form
Untrue Premises
Unsound Argument:
Incorrect Form
Untrue Premises
Skill
A critical thinker uses deductive reasoning to
discover truth (what is assumed as true) when
stating a position on an issue and also to prevent
stereotyping.
See you next time!
Week 2| Lectures
Agenda
Argument Structure
Issues
Making Decisions
Assumptions
Toulmin Model
Foundations of Argument
Structure
o Issues
o Reasons
o Conclusions
Metaphors for argument
Your claims are indefensible.
o I demolished his argument.
o You disagree? Okay, shoot!
o
➢ Approach for making decisions not
winning a battle!
Foundations of Argument
➢ Approach for making decisions not
winning a battle!
o Referring to a conclusion (claim);
o Supported by reasons (premises);
o About a particular issue (question or
controversy)
Foundations of Argument
➢ The issue: what the argument is about
➢ make it a question!
Should the minimum wage be raised?
Should energy drinks be regulated?
Should hip/hop music be banned?
Riddle: When is an issue not an issue?
•Topics are ideas or subjects.
•Topics become issues when a question or controversy
is introduced.
Foundations of Argument
➢ The issue: what the argument is about:
Topic
Issue(question).
Reasons (premises)
Conclusion/claim
Issue detection:
Ask a question or Use the following statement:
The issue is whether……there is too much violence on TV.
Issues
Do cell phones
have too many
applications?
Are cell phones
a danger to our
health?
Cell
Phones
Should cell
phones be
allowed in the
classrooms?
Should cell
phones be
allowed at
school?
Can cell
phones detract
from our
safety?
Skill
Understand the issue, make sure everyone is
discussing the same issue, and bring the discussion
back on target when necessary.
Foundations of Argument
➢ The issue: what the argument is about.
➢ Types of issues:
value issue – prescriptive
factual issue – descriptive or definitional
policy issue – action
Types of Issues
➢ Value issue: prescriptive
good or bad?
• Is there too much
violence on television?
right or wrong?
• Are salaries of major
corporation CEOs too high?
➢ Factual issue: descriptive / definitional
true or false?
• Are smog control
devices effective in
preventing pollution?
fit in a certain category?
• Is a cat a mammal?
Types of Issues
➢ Policy issue:
Action
Policy Issues involve an action step:
May emerge from facts and values:
•
•
•
Smog-control devices prevent pollution.
Clean air should be available to everyone.
Support policies for these devices.
Quiz: Name the Issue
Is there too much violence on television?
✓
value issue
Are seatbelts effective in preventing injury?
✓
Descriptive factual issue
Is a fly an insect?
✓
Definition factual issue
Will installing smog control devices prevent pollution?
✓
policy issue
Foundations of Argument
➢ The conclusion: aka position / claim
• The stand you take on the issue.
• The position taken about an issue.
• The thesis statement will express the conclusion of the author.
➢ Locate conclusions in an argument
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Look at beginning or ending.
Indicator words: therefore, so, thus, hence.
Indicator phrases: My point is, What I believe is..,
obviously, it is evident that.
Ask: What is being claimed?
Look at the title.
Foundations of Argument
➢ The reasons: aka evidence/support /
justification / premises
• Provide support for conclusions.
• Without reasons, you have no argument.
➢ Locate reasons in an argument
1.
Apply the because trick.
2.
Indicator words – Because, for, first, second, third, as
evidenced by, also, furthermore, in
addition.
3.
Support material – Examples, statistics, analogies,
reports of studies, and expert testimony
Decision-Making Model
➢ Argumentation: approach for making
decisions not winning a battle!
•
•
•
•
•
Define dilemma by asking a question
Look at long term objectives
Determine most important factors
Weigh factors against choices
Choose highest scoring alternative
Argument: Checkup
Do you know?
•
•
•
•
Difference between topic and issue
Three parts of an argument
How to locate reasons and conclusions
Approach to making decisions
Values & Ethics
Assumptions
Unstated (and often unconscious) beliefs
Values
Beliefs, ideals, or principles that are
considered worthy and held in high regard.
•
•
•
Truth
Loyalty
Freedom
Value Assumptions & Conflict
Value assumptions:
Reality assumptions:
Beliefs about how the
world should be
Beliefs about how the
world is
• What is more important
•
• Form the foundation of an
argument.
•
What is true & factual about
the world.
Based on unique
experience of individuals.
Detecting Reality Assumptions?
Claim – Students should not apply to colleges
at which SAT scores are 200 points higher
than theirs.
Reason (premise)
Students will not
likely succeed.
Based on
Warrant
(Reality Assumption)
Scores are accurate
predictions of how
well a student is
prepared.
Detecting Reality Assumptions?
Claim – Colleges should not use standardized
test scores as a measure of success.
Reason (premise)
Score only
predicts level of
struggle for first
year.
Based on
Warrant
(Reality Assumption)
Students’ success is
based on character
qualities that are not
measured by tests.
Detecting Reality Assumptions?
Issue – Should trials and executions be
televised?
Claim – Trials and executions should be
televised.
Detecting Reality Assumptions?
Claim – Trials and executions should be televised.
Reason (premise)
Public has the right
to have more
information about
the courts and the
judicial system.
Warrant
(Reality Assumption)
Based on
Televising trials would inform the
public about our judicial
system.
Warrant
(Value Assumption)
Freedom of information is
important.
Final Checkup
Do you know?
•
•
•
•
Issue
Claim
Premise
Warrant
See you next time!
Week 1| Lectures
Agenda
Attendance
Course Materials
Syllabus & Schedule
Office Hours & Emails
Critical Thinking &
Thinkers
Attendance
What can happen at 15% missed sessions?
Can you check your attendance in Bb? How?
Can you make up assignments or exams if
absent?
o Note: Answers can be found by checking the link provided in the
course.
Course Materials
Textbooks
o Diestler, Becoming a Critical Thinker
o Damer, Attacking Faulty Reasoning
o Inch & Warnick, Crit. Think’g & Comm.
Technology
o Blackboard
o MS Word & PPT
o PMU email account
Syllabus & Schedule
VI – Learning Outcomes
Assessment Strategy
o Participation/Attendance (10%)
• Open-book activities
o 2 indiv. + 2 group assignments (60%)
o Exams (30%)
Schedule – tentative
Office Hours & Emails
On/off campus – TBA
o Instructor & office info???
See BB
Professional Emails
o Subject line: course code+section#+1-2 relevant words
o Email signature
Critical Thinking
basic info on critical thinking
& problem-based learning
you →active participants, not
recipients of information
oproblems to solve → your
success in finding solutions =
the focus of attention and
evaluation
Characteristics
Are you a critical thinker?
Do you care if your beliefs are true?
Do you care if your decisions are truly justified; that is,
care to “get it right“ to the extent possible?
✓ seek alternative hypotheses, explanations, conclusions,
plans, sources, etc., and are open to them?
✓ endorse a position to the extent that, but only to the extent
that, it is justified by the information that is available?
✓ be well informed?
✓ consider seriously points of view other than your own?
Characteristics
Are you a critical thinker?
Do you care to present a position honestly and clearly,
yours as well as others’?
✓ Be clear about the intended meaning of what is said, written,
or otherwise communicated, seeking as much information
and precision as the situation requires
✓ Determine, and maintain focus on, the conclusion or
question
✓ Seek and offer reasons for their opinions/conclusions
✓ Take into account the total situation
✓ Be reflectively aware of their own basic beliefs
Characteristics
Are you a critical thinker?
Do you care about others’ point of view and treat it
with respect?
✓ Discover and listen to others’ views and reasons
✓ Avoid intimidating or confusing others, taking into account
others’ feelings and level of understanding
✓ Are concerned about others’ welfare
✓ Are concerned about educating others on the issues
Characteristics
Are you a critical thinker?
Do you care about others’ point of view and treat it
with respect?
✓ Discover and listen to others’ views and reasons
✓ Avoid intimidating or confusing others, taking into account
others’ feelings and level of understanding
✓ Are concerned about others’ welfare
✓ Are concerned about educating others on the issues
Steps in Critical Thinking
Formulating an argument
Focus on a question
o
o
o
Identify and formulate the question
Develop criteria for judging possible answers
Develop a plan for collecting data
Develop an argument
o
o
Generate premises and conclusions (the “whereas” and
“therefore”)
Develop reasoning steps/support for conclusions (the
“why”)
Steps in Critical Thinking
Deconstructing an argument
Analysis
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Identify conclusions
Identify unstated reasons (assumptions)
Identify stated reasons
Identify and handle irrelevance
See the structure of an argument
Summarize
Steps in Critical Thinking
Clarifying an argument
1. Why?
2. What is your main point?
3. What do you mean by…?
4. What would be an example?
5. What would be an exception?
6. How does that apply to this case (describe a case,
which might well appear to be a counter example)?
7. What difference does it make?
8. What are the facts?
9. Is this what you are saying: ____________?
10. Would you say some more about that?
Steps in Critical Thinking
Analyzing Sources
Judge credibility
1. Expertise
2. Lack of conflict of interest
3. Agreement among sources
4. Reputation or risk to reputation
5. Use of established procedures
6. Ability to give reasons
Inference
o Induction (specific to general)
o Deduction (general to specific)
Steps in Critical Thinking
Ask Testable Questions
Do infants dream?
Does caffeine make people anxious?
Are some people born evil?
Does passive smoking lead to lung cancer?
Are dreams an indication of our unconscious
desires and conflicts?
Is physical therapy beneficial?
Intro to Statements
Most sentences can be true or false, but a few cannot
(e.g., commands [“Don’t do that”], exclamations
[“Awesome!”])
True or false sentences are called statements or claims
Three qualities can categorize statements:
o Whether they are verifiable, evaluative, or avocatory claims
• “That sweater is green” (verifiable)
• “That’s lovely” (evaluative) vs. “The majority of the jury felt the defendant was
guilty”
• “He should treat her better”, “We should legalize marijuana” (advocatory)
o Whether they are specific, of if nonspecific, whether the qualification
strengthens or weakens the claim
• “47.6% of us want class to end now.”
• “Approximately half of us are bored”.
o Whether they serve as conclusions, premises, or support in an
argument
Specific claims are often the most persuasive, but are also
most easily refuted.
Fun with Critical Thinking
1. How do you put a giraffe into a refrigerator?
The correct answer is:
➢ Open the refrigerator, put in the giraffe, and
close the door.
This question tests whether you tend to do simple
things in an overly complicated way.
Fun with Critical Thinking
2. How do you put an elephant into a refrigerator?
The correct answer is:
➢ Open the refrigerator, take out the giraffe, put in
the elephant, and close the door.
This question tests your ability to think through the
consequences of your previous actions.
Fun with Critical Thinking
3. The Lion King is hosting an animal conference. All
the animals attend except one. Which animal does
not attend?
The correct answer is:
➢ The elephant. The elephant is in the refrigerator.
You just put him in there.
This question tests your memory.
Fun with Critical Thinking
4. There is a river you must cross, but it is used by
crocodiles, and you do not have a boat. How can
you manage it?
The correct answer is:
➢ You jump into the river and swim across. Have
you not been listening? All the crocodiles are
attending the Animal Meeting.
This question tests whether you learn quickly from
your mistakes.
See you next time!
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