Discussion question

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FOLLOW ALL THE INSTRUCTIONS

IMPORTANT: When posting, you should thoughtfully explain a theme from lecture,
then incorporate and cite at least one of your readings in your original response to the
prompt, including the author, title, publication date, and page if available. Best form is
to include that information at the end of your narrative response/as a footnote. You may
even relate current events, ask a question about a “hazy” concept, or share a personal
experience related to the topic. The goal is to demonstrate you have read and reflected on the
lessons, readings, and considered the perspectives of your classmates.
Generating responses using AI/Chat GPT is a violation of the course academic policies.
• You should aim to post an original response to my prompt and reply to two of your
classmate’s posts on the discussion board each week

May is “Mental Health Awareness Month,” and a good time to acknowledge a rising form of offending: cyberbullying and its’ potentially lethal impacts. The Pew Research Center recently published a survey report, “Teens and Cyberbullying 2022″Links to an external site. (Vogels, Dec. 15, 2022), finding that nearly half of teens have been bullied or harassed online. There are several detailed findingsLinks to an external site., including trends by gender, race, and type of online behavior (cyberflashing, online harassment, physical threats). There are various organizations devoted to digital abuse, from victim resources, digital literacy, and research, like the Cyberbullying Research CenterLinks to an external site., with content and programs for 2023, or the National Center for Victims of CrimeLinks to an external site.. The non-profit organization STOMP Out BullyingLinks to an external site. is focused on wellness for kids and teens with a goal to educate, reduce, and prevent various forms of digital abuse and hate, which alarmingly escalated during the pandemic. With an increase of suicides related to cyberbullying among teens, STOMP has made a “HelpChat” line available.Links to an external site. This aligns with efforts by the CyberSmile FoundationLinks to an external site., to offer person-to-person support for cyberbullying, revenge porn, and suicidal ideation. CyberSmile serves the U.S., the U.K., Australia, and Canada.

Do you know what “doxingLinks to an external site.” is as a form of digital abuse?

But where does and how should the law fit in, given real harms and the complexity of social relations?

Although it is not specifically about cyberbullying, the U.S. Supreme Court decided a highly consequential caseLinks to an external site. (Mahanoy Area School District v. B.L. 2021) to clarify whether, given cyberspace and social media, schools can punish students for speech that occurs off-campus. Dubbed the “Mean girls meet the First Amendment” case, it was brought by Brandi Levy, age 14, a disgruntled teen who let loose on social media when rejected for varsity cheer. Tough questions included “where” exactly is the speech occurring, how do we assess the content of speech, and who has jurisdiction to regulate this speech and punish with discipline? Although 47 states now require schools to enforce anti-bullying policies, Levy’s case is the only one in which an appeals court and the U.S. Supreme Court have ruled that a student’s off-campus speech is not subject to school discipline. (Note that formal anti-bullying laws and policiesLinks to an external site. are distinct from anti-cyberbullying policies).

Question: In light of this week’s materials and lessons, highlight the challenges of regulating cyberbullying and managing social media. What is the balance between First Amendment constitutional protections for free expression and speech, and the types of harassing, hateful conduct experienced by young victims? In what ways do you think the Levy case will (or should) impact regulation of cyberbullying, or how is it distinguishable? Given Brandi’s win, how may it have a “chilling effect” on the ability to regulate cyberbullying?

You have ample freedom to respond to the above in light of this week’s materials, as you analyze and comment on the challenges of managing cyberbullying and the era of social media.

Additional materials

CDF, Ch 9 “Cyberbullying, Online Harassment, Cyberstalking” (339-370)
National Bullying Prevention Center, “Cyberbullying”Links to an external site. and
Pew Research Center, “A Majority of Teens Have Experienced Some Form of Cyberbullying”Links to an external site. (2018)

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Cybercrime and Digital Forensics
This book offers a comprehensive and integrative introduction to cybercrime. It provides
an authoritative synthesis of the disparate literature on the various types of cybercrime,
the global investigation and detection of cybercrime and the role of digital information,
and the wider role of technology as a facilitator for social relationships between deviants
and criminals. It includes coverage of:
• key theoretical and methodological perspectives;
• computer hacking and malicious software;
• digital piracy and intellectual theft;
• economic crime and online fraud;
• pornography and online sex crime;
• cyber-bullying and cyber-stalking;
• cyber-terrorism and extremism;
• digital forensic investigation and its legal context around the world;
• the law enforcement response to cybercrime transnationally;
• cybercrime policy and legislation across the globe.
The new edition features two new chapters, the first looking at the law enforcement
response to cybercrime and the second offering an extended discussion of online child
pornography and sexual exploitation.
This book includes lively and engaging features, such as discussion questions, boxed
examples of unique events and key figures in offending, quotes from interviews with
active offenders, and a full glossary of terms. This new edition includes QR codes
throughout to connect directly with relevant websites. It is supplemented by a
companion website that includes further exercises for students and instructor resources.
This text is essential reading for courses on cybercrime, cyber-deviancy, digital forensics,
cybercrime investigation, and the sociology of technology.
Thomas J. Holt is a Professor in the School of Criminal Justice at Michigan State
University, USA.
Adam M. Bossler is a Professor of Criminal Justice and Criminology at Georgia
Southern University, USA.
Kathryn C. Seigfried-Spellar is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Computer
and Information Technology at Purdue University, USA.
“The second and expanded edition of Cybercrime and Digital Forensics is a most welcome update on this
popular introductory text that covers the field, from the origins of computer hacking to the seizure and
preservation of digital data. Each chapter begins with a useful general overview of the relevant literature on the
2
topic or issue covered, whether economic cybercrimes or online stalking, and then provides coverage of laws,
cases, and problems not just in the US but pertinent to other jurisdictions. Additional chapters on child
exploitation materials, the role of transnational police and private investigation of cybercrime, and expanded
treatment of cyber-terrorism, allow for more in depth treatment of these topics and, importantly, options for
streaming or modifying the content of taught courses on cybercrime and digital investigations. The authors have
again provided numerous online sources in the text and cases for students to explore, and a supporting website
that should help to keep readers and instructors in touch with this rapidly changing field.”
— Roderic Broadhurst, Professor of Criminology, RegNet, Australian National University
“It is unusual to find a book in this field that does not simply focus on the technical aspects of the subject area.
This book brings together a wide range of literature, sources, and real case-studies to provide an in-depth look at
this ever-changing subject area. The book is rich in material and is a good read for those just starting to look at
cyber-security, all the way through to those living and breathing it.”
— Emlyn Butterfield, Course Director, School of Computing, Creative Technologies and Engineering, Leeds
Beckett University
“The style and organization of the book are ideal, not only for the introductory student, but also for the lay
reader. What’s more, the timeliness and detail of the issues discussed make it a useful resource for more
advanced researchers. In this book, the authors have delivered something for everyone.”
— Peter Grabosky, Professor Emeritus, RegNet, Australian National University
“Cybercrime and Digital Forensics provides an excellent introduction to the theory and practice of cybercrime.
This second edition introduces new chapters on law enforcement responses to cybercrime and an extended
section on online child pornography and sexual exploitation. The authors have introduced new and recent case
material making the subject relevant and accessible to academics and students interested in this new and
exciting field of study. I used the first edition of this book extensively in teaching an undergraduate course on
cybercrime. This new edition updates and expands on the topic. Both students and teachers will be attracted to
the clarity of presentation and extensive use of cases to focus discussion on challenging issues.”
— Dr Lennon Chang, Lecturer in Criminology, School of Social Sciences, Monash University
3
Cybercrime and Digital Forensics
An Introduction
Second Edition
Thomas J. Holt, Adam M. Bossler
and Kathryn C. Seigfried-Spellar
4
Second edition published 2018
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2018 Thomas J. Holt, Adam M. Bossler and Kathryn C. Seigfried-Spellar
The right of Thomas J. Holt, Adam M. Bossler and Kathryn Seigfried-Spellar to be
identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections
77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2015
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Holt, Thomas J., 1978– author. | Bossler, Adam M., author. | Seigfried-Spellar,
Kathryn C., author.
Title: Cybercrime and digital forensics : an introduction / Thomas J. Holt, Adam M.
Bossler and Kathryn C. Seigfried-Spellar.
Description: Second edition. | Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2018. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017017922 | ISBN 9781138238725 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138238732
(pbk.) | ISBN 9781315296975 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Computer crimes. | Forensic sciences.
Classification: LCC HV6773 .H648 2018 | DDC 363.25/968—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017017922
ISBN: 978-1-138-23872-5 (hbk)
5
ISBN: 978-1-138-23873-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-29697-5 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Visit the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/holt
6
Contents
List of figures
List of tables
List of boxes
1 TECHNOLOGY AND CYBERCRIME
Introduction
Technology as a landscape for crime
A typology of cybercrime
This text
2 LAW ENFORCEMENT, PRIVACY, AND SECURITY IN DEALING WITH
CYBERCRIME
Introduction
Local police and sheriffs’ offices
State agencies
Federal law enforcement
Civil investigation and application of digital evidence
Extralegal agencies and non-governmental organizations
International enforcement challenges
The tension between security and privacy
Summary
3 COMPUTER HACKERS AND HACKING
Introduction
Defining computer hacking
Victims of hacking
The human aspects of the hacker subculture
Hacking history
The modern hacker subculture
Legal frameworks to prosecute hacking
Enforcing and investigating hacker activity
Summary
4 MALWARE AND AUTOMATED COMPUTER ATTACKS
Introduction
The basics of malware
7
Viruses, trojans, and worms
The global impact of malware
Hackers and malware writers
The market for malicious software
Legal challenges in dealing with malware
Coordination and management in addressing malware
Summary
5 DIGITAL PIRACY AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY THEFT
Introduction
What is intellectual property?
The evolution of piracy over time
The subculture of piracy
The evolution of legislation to deal with piracy
The law enforcement and industry response
Summary
6 ECONOMIC CRIMES AND ONLINE FRAUD
Introduction
Fraud and computer-mediated communications
Identity theft
Email-based scams
Romance scams
The problem of carding and stolen data markets
Identity theft and fraud laws
Summary
7 PORNOGRAPHY, PROSTITUTION, AND SEX CRIMES
Introduction
The spectrum of sexuality online
Pornography in the digital age
Prostitution and sex work
Dealing with obscenity and pornography online
Self-regulation by the pornography industry
Summary
8 CHILD PORNOGRAPHY AND SEXUAL EXPLOITATION
Introduction
Defining and differentiating child porn from obscene content
The role of technology in child pornography and exploitation
8
Explorations of the pedophile subculture online
The legal status of child pornography around the globe
Summary
9 CYBERBULLYING, ONLINE HARASSMENT, AND CYBERSTALKING
Online threats, bullying, and harassment
Defining cyberbullying
Predictors of bullying online and offline
Summary
10 ONLINE EXTREMISM, CYBERTERROR, AND CYBERWARFARE
Introduction
Defining terror, hacktivism, and cyberterror
The role of nation-state vs. non-nation-state attacks
The use of the Internet in the indoctrination and recruitment of
extremist groups
Electronic attacks by extremist groups
Cyberwar and the nation-state
Legislating extremism and cyberterror
Investigating and securing cyberspace from the threat of terror and
war
Cyberwar and response
Summary
11 CYBERCRIME AND CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES
Introduction
Subcultural theories
Social learning theory and cybercrime
General theory of crime
Agnew’s general strain theory
Techniques of neutralization
Deterrence theory
Theories of cybercrime victimization
Need for new cyberspace theories?
Summary
12 EVOLUTION OF DIGITAL FORENSICS
Introduction
From computer forensics to digital forensics
Stages of digital forensic investigation
9
The role of digital evidence
Types of hardware, peripherals, and electronic evidence
Evidence integrity
Summary
13 ACQUISITION AND EXAMINATION OF FORENSIC EVIDENCE
Introduction
Data preservation
Digital forensic imaging tools
Uncovering digital evidence
Data analysis
Data reduction and filtering
Reporting of findings
Summary
14 LEGAL CHALLENGES IN DIGITAL FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS
Introduction
Constitutional issues in digital investigations
Federal Rules of Evidence 702
Summary
15 THE FUTURE OF CYBERCRIME, TERROR, AND POLICY
Introduction
Considering the future of cybercrime
How technicways will shift with new technologies
Social movements, technology, and social change
Need for new cyber criminological theories?
Shifting enforcement strategies in the age of the Internet
Considering the future of forensics
The challenge to policy makers globally
Summary
Glossary
Index
10
Figures
1.1 Venn diagram of cybercrime, cyberterrorism, and cyberdeviance
3.1 Venn diagram of computer hacking
4.1 The SubSeven Attacker Graphical User Interface (GUI)
4.2 An example of a Zeus Malware Variant GUI
4.3 Botnet command and control distribution
4.4 An example of the Illusion Bot Malware GUI
12.1 Floppy disks
12.2 An unmanned aircraft system (UAS), also known as a drone
12.3a/b Hiding flash drives
12.4 An older model computer
12.5 The evolution of removable storage devices
12.6 The evolving state of mobile phones
12.7a/b Hidden media examples
13.1a/b Write blockers
13.2 Screenshot of EnCase created by Guidance Software
13.3 Screenshot of Forensic Toolkit (FTK) created by AccessData
13.4a/b Diagram of a hard drive, sectors, and clusters
13.5 Keyword searching through forensic software
13.6 Common file signatures
13.7 File carving
13.8a/b An example of encryption
14.1 A pay phone booth
14.2 Cellebrite device
14.3 The scientific method
11
Tables
3.1 A timeline of notable events in the history of hacking
3.2 A timeline of computer hacking conferences
12
Boxes
1.1 Getting around Russian extradition laws
2.1 A local agency’s new cybercrime detective
2.2 Assessing the credibility of a fusion center’s analysis of a cyber-attack
2.3 The role of digital evidence in divorce cases
2.4 An examination of why we should be concerned by government spying
campaigns
3.1 The Jargon File definition of hacking
3.2 Mainframe computing systems
3.3 A hacker talks about WarGames
3.4 The criminal exploits of Kevin Mitnick
3.5 The electronic disturbance theater and cyber-attacks
3.6 The ongoing conflict between Indian and Pakistani hackers
3.7 LulzSec hacks FBI affiliate, Infragard
4.1 The debate over public or private vulnerability disclosures
4.2 F-Secure report on virus W32/Concept malware
4.3 Interview with MPack creator
4.4 Interview with the malware writer Corpse
4.5 One of the first modern prosecutions for malware distribution in the USA
5.1 Friedman Wolverine review
5.2 These were the top-14 illegally downloaded movies in 2015
5.3 Torrent downloads: Fiasco over three-year jail term shows absurdity of
India’s John Doe orders
6.1 Follow Friday: where debit card numbers get stolen
6.2 Nigerian email text
6.3 Phishing example
6.4 Work-at-home scheme
6.5 Understanding the human dimensions of romance scams
6.6 Pump-and-dump message
6.7 Counterfeit luxury goods message
6.8 The rise of virtual brand protection communities
6.9 Counterfeit pharmaceutical message
6.10 Albert Gonzales
6.11 Using Japanese ATMs to defraud South African banks
6.12 The overlapping role of the Secret Service and the Federal Bureau of
Investigation
7.1 The impact of revenge porn on its victims
7.2 The rise of VR porn content
7.3 The role of escort review sites
13
7.4 The opinions of a hobbyist in Canada
7.5 The vagaries of prosecuting obscene content online
8.1 The practices of To Catch a Predator
8.2 The 10-Point COPINE Scale
8.3 Details on Operation Delego
8.4 Live-streaming sexual abuse content
8.5 Understanding attempts to solicit youth into documenting sexual acts
8.6 The complex techniques required to investigate Dark Web child porn
8.7 The Rogers Seigfried-Spellar Hybrid Model
8.8 Immigration and Customs Enforcement operations in action
8.9 The Virtual Global Taskforce in action
9.1 Catfishing in the news
9.2 Vickie Newton and negative outcomes of cyberstalking
9.3 The unfortunate suicides resulting from bullying
9.4 The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act applied to Megan Meier’s death
9.5 The failure of the Megan Meier bullying legislation
9.6 The suicide of Rehtaeh Parsons
9.7 Facebook security suggestions for parents
10.1 The use of technology in protest activities
10.2 The use of encrypted chat applications by terrorists
10.3 Ultimatum For DDoS attacks against US banks
10.4 Anonymous open letter example
10.5 The role of social media in recruitment and radicalization
10.6 An example of Facebook live being used for terrorism
10.7 Examples of cyber-attacks against SCADA systems in water treatment
10.8 Questioning the reality of cyberterror
10.9 Inside the Russian troll organization
10.10 The tools created by the NSA for espionage and attack
11.1 Examples of websites that provide information on hacking techniques
11.2 Understanding the consequences of cyberbullying
11.3 Justifications for hacking
11.4 Self-protection while online
11.5 Psychological theories of cybercrime
12.1 The Flagler Dog Track incident
12.2 Alexa a witness to murder? Prosecutor’s seek Amazon Echo data
12.3 Video game systems and digital evidence
12.4 Digital evidence and real-world crime
13.1 An example of how the MD5 algorithm works
13.2 The Adam Walsh Act
13.3 State (Ohio) vs. Cook (2002)
13.4 Example of partition recovery
13.5 Data sectors
14
13.6 Slack space
13.7 An example of encryption
14.1 A fictional search warrant
14.2 A fictional search warrant
14.3 Double jeopardy
14.4 Excerpt from Apple’s “Message to Our Customers”
14.5 An excerpt from the US Federal Rules of Evidence
14.6 An excerpt from the Indian Evidence Act of 1972 (Section 65A and 65B)
15.1 Understanding changes in ransomware
15.2 Examining the harassment experienced by Leslie Jones on Twitter
15.3 Understanding the Burgernet in the Netherlands
15.4 Investigating Tor users
15
Chapter 1
Technology and Cybercrime
Chapter goals
• Explain how technology has affected human behavior.
• Identify the difference between digital natives and digital immigrants.
• Discuss the three ways in which technology can be abused by individuals.
• Recognize a subculture and their role in offending behaviors.
• Identify the differences between cyberdeviance, cybercrime, and
cyberterror.
• Understand how computers and technology produce digital evidence and
its value in criminal investigation .
• Explain the factors that make cybercrimes attractive to certain people.
• Explore the various forms of cybercrime that occur across the world.
16
Introduction
The Internet, computers, and mobile technologies have dramatically reshaped modern
society. Although it is difficult to comprehend, less than two decades ago most
individuals did not own a cell phone and personal computers were still somewhat
expensive pieces of equipment. Individuals could not text and email was uncommon.
Internet connectivity was possible through dial-up modems or Ethernet cabling and
people paid by the hour for access to the Web. Video game systems used 16-bit graphics
and did not connect to other devices. Global Positioning Systems (GPS) were largely
used in military applications only.
Today, most of the world now depends on computers, the Internet, and cellular
technology. Individuals now own laptops that are connected via Wi-Fi, cell phones that
may also connect to the Internet, and one or more video game systems that may be
networked. In addition, people have multiple email accounts for personal and business
use, as well as social networking profiles in multiple platforms. Cell phones have become
a preferred method of communication for most people, especially text messages. In fact,
individuals under the age of 20 regularly send more texts than any other age group, and
prefer to send texts rather than make phone calls (Zickuhr, 2011). Individuals also
frequently purchase goods online and are increasingly using e-readers for books and
newspapers rather than traditional print media.
It is amazing to consider that the world and human behavior have changed so quickly
through the use of technology. In fact, there are now 3.4 billion Internet users
worldwide, comprising 46.1 percent of the world’s population (Internet Live Stats, 2016).
China and India have the largest population of Internet users, though only 55 percent
and 34 percent of their total populations have access (Internet Live Stats, 2016). The USA,
Brazil, and Japan have the next largest populations, though a much greater proportion of
their populations have access (88.5%, 66.4%, and 91.1% respectively: Internet Live Stats,
2016). (sự tăng sinh)
The proliferation of technology has led to distinct changes in how individuals engage
with the world around them. People now shop, communicate, and share information in
digital formats, which was previously impossible. Additional changes in behavior are
likely to continue in the face of technological innovations as they are developed and
implemented. In fact, the sociologist Howard Odum referred to this process as
technicways, recognizing the ways in which behavior patterns change in response to, or
as consequence of, technological innovations (Odum, 1937; Parker, 1943; Vance, 1972).
From Odum’s perspective, technic-ways replace existing behavior patterns and force
institutional changes in society (Vance, 1972). For instance, if an individual 30 years ago
wanted to communicate with other people, he/she might call them, see them in person if
possible, or more likely send a letter through postal mail. Now, however, that person
17
would send a text, write an email, instant message, or poke them through Facebook
rather than write a letter through “snail mail.”
The impacts of technicways are evident across all demographic groups in modern
society. For instance, 77 percent of Americans owned a smart phone as of 2016, with
substantial access among younger populations: 92 percent of 18- to 29-year-olds have one
(Smith, 2017). In addition, there are over 1 billion mobile phone subscribers each in
China and India (Rai, 2016). Importantly, China has over 500 million smartphone users,
while India has only 125 million. As these rates continue to increase Internet use will
change, transforming social and economic interactions in unique ways from country to
country (Rai, 2016).
This is evident in the fact that many people around the world use social media as a
means to connect and engage with others in different ways. For instance, 79 percent of
American adults use Facebook, though there has been a substantial increase in the use of
Instagram and LinkedIn as a means to communicate (Greenwood, Perrin, and Duggan,
2016). Adults aged 65 and older are joining these sites at the highest rates compared to
other age groups. In addition, Americans appear to use the Facebook messenger app
more than any other product available (Schwartz, 2016). WhatsApp is much more
popular in a global context, and is the number one messaging application across much of
South America, Western Europe, Africa, and Asia. Viber, however, is much more
popular across Eastern Europe, particularly Belarus, Ukraine, and other nations in the
region (Schwartz, 2016).
Despite regional variations in use, technology has had a massive impact on youth
populations who have never experienced life without the Internet and computermediated communications (CMCs) like email and texting. Today, youth in the USA
acquire their first cell phones when they are between the ages of 12 and 13 (Lenhart,
2010). Similar use patterns are evident across the globe, with children in the UK
receiving a phone by an average age of 11 (Gibbs, 2013), and 12 in a study of Japan,
India, Indonesia, Egypt, and Chile (GSM Association, 2012).
18
For more information on statistics of social media and technology use, go
online to:
1. www.pewinternet.org/
2. www.huffingtonpost.com/april-rudin/life-on-a-social-mediais_b_4600429.html
(thực sự đã định hình và uốn nắn hành vi của họ)
(đơn giản là dịch chuyển)
Technology has not simply shifted the behaviors of youth, but has actually shaped and
molded their behavior and worldview from the start. Most people born in the mid- to
late 1980s have never lived without computers, the Internet, or cell phones. As a
consequence, they do not know a world without these devices and what life was like
without these resources. Thus, Prensky (2001) argued that these youth are digital
natives, in that they were brought into a world that was already digital, spend large
amounts of time in digital environments, and use technological resources in their day-today lives. For instance, individuals between the ages of 18 and 34 are the most heavy
Internet users worldwide (Statistica, 2015). Virtually everyone (96%) aged 16 to 24 in the
UK accesses the Internet on a mobile device (Office for National Statistics, 2015). Young
people are also more likely to use auto-delete messaging applications like Snapchat,
comprising 56 percent of Internet users in a recent US study (Greenwood et al., 2016). In
fact, youth in India and Indonesia send an average of 51 text or application-based
messages a day via a mobile device (GSM Association, 2012).
By contrast, digital immigrants are those who were born prior to the creation of the
Internet and digital technologies (Prenksy, 2001). These individuals quite often need to
adapt to the digital environment, which changes much more rapidly than they may be
prepared for otherwise. This is especially true for many older individuals who were born
decades before the creation and advent of these technologies. As a consequence, they
may be less willing to immediately adopt these resources or use them in diverse ways.
For instance, only 45 percent of adults in the USA over the age of 65 own either a laptop
or desktop computer (Zickuhr, 2011). In addition, some resources may be more difficult
for digital immigrants to understand because of the technologies employed or their
perceived utility. For example, only 9 percent of US adults aged 50 and older were likely
to use an app like Snapchat, and less than 1 percent accessed services like YikYak
(Greenwood et al., 2016). Similarly, only 29 percent of people aged 65 years and older in
the UK used the Internet on a mobile device (Office for National Statistics, 2015). Thus,
digital immigrants have a very different pattern of adoption and use of technologies
relative to digital natives.
The proliferation of technology in modern society has had a massive impact on
(đang được cơ cấu lại)
human behavior. The world is being restructured around the use of CMCs, affecting the
way in which we interact with governments, businesses, and one another. In addition,
19
technology use is also creating a divide between generations based on the way in which
individuals use technology in their day-to-day lives. In turn, individuals are adapting
their behavior in ways that subvert the original beneficial design and application of
computers and the Internet. lật đổ
20
(môi trường/bối cảnh)
Technology as a landscape for crime
sự tiến hóa
(đổi mới)
The continuing evolution of human behavior as a result of technological innovations has
created unparalleled opportunities for crime and misuse. Over the past three decades,
(cơ hội chưa từng có)
there has been a substantive increase in the use of technology by street criminals and
đáng kể
novel applications of technology to create new forms of crime that did not previously
(nơi/địa điểm )
exist. The World Wide Web and the Internet also provide a venue for individuals who
engage in crime and deviance to communicate and share information, which is not
(sự lệch lạc)
(thiết yếu)
otherwise possible in the real world. As a result, it is vital that we begin to understand
how these changes are occurring, and what this means for offending in the twenty-first
century. There are three key ways in which computer and cellular technologies may be
abused or subverted by offenders:
(bị lạm dụng hoặc bị lật đổ)
(phương tiện để giao tiếp)
(nền văn hóa trực tuyến)
1. as a medium for communication and the development of subcultures online;
chế)
2. as a(cơmechanism
to target sensitive resources and engage in crime and deviance;
tạo điều kiện
3. as an incidental device to facilitate the offense and provide evidence of
(ngẫu nhiên)
criminal activity both online and offline.
Technology as a communications medium
The Internet, telephony, and digital media may be used as a means for communication
(nhanh chóng)
(phi tập trung)
toàn cầu
between individuals in a rapid and decentralized fashion across the globe. Computers,
cell phones, and technological equipment may be obtained at minimal cost and used
(sự ẩn danh)
with a high degree of anonymity. For instance, major retailers and convenience stores
sell phones that may be used without a contract through a carrier like Sprint or Verizon.
The ability to use the phone depends on the number of minutes purchased and it can be
(xử lý)
disposed of after use.
In turn, criminals can use these devices to connect with others and share information
(gái mại dâm)
(diễn đàn)
that may be of interest. For example, the customers of prostitutes use web forums and
chatrooms to discuss where sex workers are located, services provided, pricing, and the
police presence in a given area (Holt and Blevins, 2007; Holt, Blevins, and Kuhns, 2008;
(chỉ đạo)
Sharp and Earle, 2003). This exchange of first-hand information is difficult to conduct in
dấu hiệu bên ngoài
khác
the real world, as there are no outward signs to otherwise suggest that someone is
interested in or has visited a prostitute. In addition, there is a high degree of social
sự kỳ thị
stigma and shame surrounding paying for sex, so it is unlikely that someone would
admit this behavior to another person in public (McKeganey and Barnard, 1996;
O’Connell Davidson, 1998). The faceless, anonymous nature of the Internet, however,
sự trả thù
allows people to talk about such actions with little risk of harm or reprisal.
chất ma túy
The sale of illicit narcotics like cocaine, marijuana, and methamphetamines has also
trái phép
21
moved online with the development of markets where individuals buy and sell narcotics
through various methods. The primary resources used by sellers and buyers are forums
phần
operating on the so-called Dark Web, which is a portion of the Internet that can only be
mã hóa
phần mềm
accessed via the use of specialized encryption software and browser protocols.
Individuals can only access these forums through the use of The Onion Router, or TOR
service, which is a free proxy and encryption protocol that hides the IP address and
location details of the user (Barratt, Ferris, and Winstock, 2014; Dolliver, 2015). In
addition, the content of these sites cannot be indexed by google or other search engines.
As a result, this technology limits the ability of law enforcement agencies to eliminate
illicit content because the hosting source cannot be identified through traditional means
(Dolliver, 2015; Estes, 2014).
For more information on TOR, including how it operates, go online to:
www.torproject.org/about/overview.html.en.
sự nổi bật
One of the first Tor-based narcotics markets that gained prominence was called the
Silk Road. The market gained attention from researchers and the popular media due to
the nature of the products sold, and the fact that transactions were paid using bitcoins, a
relatively anonymous form of electronic currency (Franklin, 2013). The site was created
to enable individuals to buy various materials ranging from computer equipment to
clothing, though sellers offered various narcotics from locations across the globe. In fact,
its name was a reference to the trade routes used to transport goods between Europe,
India, and Asia throughout history (Franklin, 2013).
As the Silk Road gained prominence as a venue for the sale of various narcotics, law
tiến hành
enforcement agencies in both the USA and Australia conducted sting operations against
buyers. In fact, since it opened in 2011 the Silk Road enabled over one million
doanh thu
transactions worth an estimated $1.2 billion in revenue (Barratt, 2012). An FBI
investigation into the site administrator, who used the handle Dread Pirate Roberts, led
to the arrest of Ross William Ulbricht in San Francisco, California on October 2, 2013
gạ gẫm/xúi giục
(Gibbs, 2013). Ulbricht was charged with drug trafficking, soliciting murder, enabling
computer hacking and money laundering, and had several million dollars’ worth of
rửa tiền
bitcoins seized.
bị tịch thu
22
For more information on the arrest of Dread Pirate Roberts, go online to:
http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2013/10/how-the-feds-took-down-the-dreadpirate-roberts/.
chứng tỏ
phân bố/
phân tán
tính chất/bản chất
The Silk Road demonstrates that the distributed nature of the Internet and CMCs
enables individuals to connect to other people and groups that share similar likes,
tạo điều kiện thuận lợi
dislikes, behaviors, opinions, and values. As a result, technology facilitates the creation
bất kể
of subcultures between individuals based on common behaviors and ideals regardless of
địa lý
geographic or social isolation. From a sociological and criminological perspective,
subcultures are groups that have their own values, norms, traditions, and rituals which
tách no ra khỏi
thống trị
set them apart from the dominant culture (Kornblum, 1997; Brake, 1980).
cấu trúc
Participants in subcultures generate their own codes of conduct to structure the ways
tạo ra
in which they interact with other members of the subculture and different groups in
society (Foster, 1990). In addition, membership in a subculture influences individual
behavior by providing beliefs, goals, and values that approve of and justify activity
(Herbert, 1998). For instance, a subculture may emphasize the development of skills and
abilities that may find less value in the general culture, like an ability to use multiple
programming languages and manipulate hardware and software among computer
hackers (Holt, 2007; Jordan and Taylor, 1998; Taylor, 1999). Members of a subculture also
lập luận riêng
have their own argot or slang to communicate with