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hello, I attached the question and the pages required to complete this assignment. The questions you will respond to are highlighted in yellow. The first question requires a reading material that I attached (30-33 & 43-49), you will be using the 69-74 for this discussion. Longer response is preferred, even though you wrote 5 sentences. Please don’t use AI to avoid plagiarism. Make sure to read the attached content, and don’t copy any sentences from the material.
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•
Allosso & Williford, pages 69-74 (note that these page numbers correspond with
the book’s page numbers and not the pdf page numbers. For this day’s reading,
the passage starts with, “European intellectuals also considered…”)
Your response is due by or before 12:30 pm on the date due. Write a response to this prompt
that is, at least, five sentences long; a longer response is preferred.
Q1: What is the most important difference between the maritime expansion exhibited by
China (discussed in the readings/discussion on January 16) and Portugal (for today’s topic)?
Q2: Explain why you believe this difference is most important.
Modern World History 69
•
Do you think the term Enlightenment (or aufklärung) is an
accurate description of the change in our understanding of
the world produced by the new “natural science”?
•
Were philosophers such as David Hume justiQed in
suggesting that supernatural claims were problematic?
European intellectuals also
considered
economic
questions. Capitalism, the
idea that invested wealth can
be an engine for economic,
social,
and
technological
development,
was
most
famously explained by the
English philosopher Adam
Smith.
An
agricultural
The old Town Hall where the Bank of
Amsterdam was founded in 1609
revolution contributed to
increased crop production
and population growth in the 1400s, and that led to a surplus
population being able to gather in towns and cities to engage in
artisanal activities—metropolises which were once mainly
centers of commerce and government and Church
administration, began to produce goods for trade as well. Even
before the development of mechanized textile factories in
Great Britain, for example, weavers lived and worked in districts
like East London for generations. People began to specialize in
particular trades, making products for customers beyond their
own families and neighborhoods. Some general-purpose
cratsmen like blacksmiths became increasingly specialized,
focusing on manufacturing products with broader, mass
markets (for example guns or carriage-springs, rather than just
horseshoes, nails, hinges, and whatever the locals needed from
day to day).
Banks in Europe began forming fnancial networks that
standardized prices across larger regions, such as in Italy, the
Low Countries and along the Baltic coast. When transportation
70 Dan Allosso and Tom Williford
and communication are poor, there are many opportunities
for arbitrage: buying products cheap where they are abundant
and then selling them for a proft where they are scarce. As
networks improved, these opportunities decreased – or at least
were pushed farther away.
Politics and fnance were connected at this time: capitalism
did not develop in a vacuum. Although Adam Smith famously
described the “Invisible Hand” of market forces in 1776,
merchants were heavily involved in government in England
and Europe, inguencing their nations’ policies and regulations
to favor their own goals. Also, as described in later chapters,
imperial expansion and colonial armies were indispensable for
the spread of capitalism throughout the world.
Question for Discussion
•
Is it signiQcant that the stories we tell about the capitalist
system focus on the “Invisible Hand” and stress freedom, in
spite of the close ties between business and government
power?
Modern World History 71
The Reconquista and Portuguese Trade with Africa
Depiction of the Muslim surrender of Granada to Ferdinand and Isabella, ending the
Reconquista
In the next chapter, we will turn to the Americas and their
discovery by Europeans. The backstory for this discovery and
colonization is the Reconquista, a centuries-long eeort by the
Portuguese and Spanish to push the Muslim Moors back to
Africa. Muslims had taken over most of the Iberian Peninsula
beginning in 711. The Reconquista begun by Christian nobles in
northern Spain took about 800 years to complete.
The Portuguese Christians “reconquered” more quickly,
because Portugal does not extend as far into the south and the
Spanish kings and princes had to contend with the fortifed
cities of Seville and Granada. However, Portugal also captured
Ceuta, a Moroccan fortress in North Africa in 1415, which gave
them control over the western Mediterranean and the Atlantic.
Ater a brief but successful war with Castile, the principle
kingdom in central Spain, Portugal turned its attention to
exploring and acquiring territory along the coast of Africa in
the 1430s and 1440s under the direction of Prince Henry the
Navigator (Henry’s older brother Edward became King when
their father died of the plague). The Portuguese were becoming
72 Dan Allosso and Tom Williford
merchants and traders while the Christian Spanish were still
fghting Muslims.
Portuguese mariners, following the route established by
Bartolomeu Dias and Vasco de Gama in 1488 and 1497, began
sailing to Asia around southern Africa. They conquered coastal
east African city-states, established colonies in Angola and
Mozambique, and took advantage of a slave-trading network
that provided possibly 10 million captives for Muslim slave
auctions from the 9th century to the twentieth. Portuguese
control of the African coast was one of the reasons the royal
court in Lisbon showed little interest in Columbus’s proposal to
sail west across the Atlantic to India; it is also why the Spanish
were eager to take Columbus up on his plan in search of a route
to Asia. We will return to Spain’s interest in Columbus in the
next chapter.
Portuguese discoveries and explorations: brst arrival places and dates, and main
Portuguese spice trade routes in the Indian Ocean.
As mentioned above, in the wake of the Black Death peasants
and artisans demanded and received better pay, leading to
increased commercial activity in Europe in the late 1300s which
included not only the important Mediterranean trade
dominated by Italian merchants, but also in the Baltic and
across the English Channel. However, economic expansion was
limited by the availability of gold and silver coins, which had
been used in exchange since the sixth century BCE in Greece
and Persia.
Portuguese merchants were interested in developing a route
around Africa to Asia for the trade in spice and silks, but they
Modern World History 73
were pleased to fnd trade in sub-Saharan Africa as well. The
story of the enormous gold reserves of Mansa Musa, Muslim
ruler of Mali, were well known to Europeans, especially ater
he spent enormous amounts of gold in the Middle East during
his pilgrimage to Mecca in the 1327. The Portuguese enquired
about the availability of gold in every contact that they made
in their explorations, and were not disappointed. Present-day
Ghana in West Africa was known as the “gold coast” by
European traders and imperialists until its independence in
1957, and is still second only to South Africa in gold production
on the continent.
Detail from the Catalan Atlas of 1375 showing Mansa Musa sitting on a throne and
holding a gold coin
African gold certainly aided in economic exchange in Europe,
but it was not enough. As we will see in the next chapter, the
search for gold was an important motivation for the
exploration, conquest, and colonization of the Americas by the
Spanish and Portuguese.
Questions for Discussion
74 Dan Allosso and Tom Williford
•
Why did Portugal complete its Reconquista earlier than Spain?
•
How did a lack of gold and silver slow economic growth in
Europe?
The African Slave Trade
As in most world societies in the 1400s, the institution of slavery
was a traditional element in African kingdoms and chiefdoms.
Captives were usually acquired through war or as for payment
of debts, and enslaved for a period of time or even for life.
However, enslaved captives oten gained positions in the
societies that had captured them, and their children were
generally born free. African traders were willing to include this
human cargo in commerce with the Portuguese and other
Europeans, who readily accepted them as enslaved laborers and
domestic servants.
The trade of enslaved people, especially from eastern Europe,
had been important in many parts of that continent even into
the 1400s. We have seen that in the Ottoman Empire, the
Janissaries were eastern European captives who were trained as
an elite military corps. The thriving economies of all of the
Islamic empires, from Spain through Persia, also created a
demand for enslaved people from Europe. The Vikings of
northern Europe sold captives from Britain to the Middle East,
as did the Frankish kings of western and central Europe, who
enslaved prisoners-of-war from among the Slavic peoples of
eastern Europe (as had the Romans before them). Although the
demand for enslaved labor was less in Europe than in the more
economically-developed Muslim world, some European slaves
certainly served owners in the fefdoms of the western Europe.
The human cargo brought to Europe from Africa by the
Portuguese in the 1400s, however, became much more highly
favored than that of eastern Europe: not only were dark-skinned
people more exotic for service in the royal courts, they also
could not escape by simply blending in with the local
population. One can easily imagine how this would lead to ideas
30 Dan Allosso and Tom Williford
One
of
Yongle’s
most
trusted subordinates was the
eunuch admiral Zheng He
(1371-1433), the son of a
Muslim
soldier
from
southwestern China. At the
age of ten Zheng He was
captured, castrated, and sent
to serve Prince Zhu Di in
Dadu.
Castration
was
a
common practice throughout
the ancient and early modern
world, used in China to insure
loyalty by eliminating congict
between family and duty.
Educated in the prince’s
household, Zheng He became
a loyal soldier and later a Statue of Admiral Zheng He located in
general. Zheng He helped Melaka, Malaysia.
Zhu Di depose his nephew
and take control of the empire, and the new Yongle Emperor
appointed Zheng He admiral of his geet and sent him on seven
expeditions between 1405 and 1430.
Modern World History 31
Zheng He’s cagship compared to the caravel Santa Maria used by Columbus 87 years
later.
Zheng He’s frst expedition let China in July 1405 with 62
large ships, over 200 smaller ships, and 28,000 soldiers. The
largest ships were 425 feet long, over six times the length of
the 65-foot caravels the Spanish and Portuguese would use on
their explorations nearly a century later. China’s four-decked,
1,500-ton gagships had shallow drats to allow them to navigate
in river estuaries and watertight bulkheads to protect them from
sinking. Their nine masts were up to two hundred feet tall and
ftted with rattan sails.
Zheng He’s geet was not interested in establishing colonies,
but in exacting tribute and opening trade relationships
throughout South Asia. The geet traded for ivory, spices,
ointments, exotic woods, giraees, zebras, and ostriches; while
also demanding tribute from the rulers of nations like Sumatra
and Sri Lanka. Oten, when local leaders seemed unwilling to
submit, Zheng He seized them and brought them to Beijing
where they could be convinced of the overwhelming power
of the Chinese Empire. Among the places Zheng visited were
Bangkok, Java, Melaka, Burma, the east and west coasts of India,
32 Dan Allosso and Tom Williford
Hormuz in the Persian Gulf, Jedda on the Red Sea, and
Mogadishu and Mombasa on the east coast of Africa. Ninetyfve delegations from Southeast Asia and other more distant
nations reached the Yongle Emperor’s court during his 22-year
reign, and he established a College of Translators to handle all
the correspondence he received from foreign contacts. Zheng
He’s seven expeditions extracted tribute from many
neighboring kingdoms, and Yongle trusted him so completely
that he sent Zheng He blank scrolls with his imperial seal on
them, to use in whatever way he chose.
The seven voyages of Zheng He, 1405-1433.
For many centuries the voyages of Zheng He were not
featured in histories of China, even in China itself. As historians
have rediscovered these expeditions, the superiority of Chinese
naval technology has challenged the belief that western nations
were the frst to establish maritime power. One of the most
interesting questions about Zheng He’s voyages is, “Why did
they end?” China did not establish oeshore colonies, perhaps
partly because there was so much territory available on the
empire’s northern and western frontiers. China’s rapidlygrowing population was a ready market for most of the empire’s
Modern World History 33
farm products and manufactures, and the international trade
that interested China already found its way to the empire
without much eeort on China’s part. And unlike European
kings, the Yongle emperor was not interested in evangelizing
Confucianism or Buddhism to the rest of the world—the
Spanish and Portuguese, in particular, wanted to convert the
world to Catholic Christianity, which became not only a goal but
a justifcation for conquest and colonization.
When the Yongle Emperor’s son and grandson inherited the
throne, Zheng He’s expeditions gradually became less of a
priority. Ater a fnal voyage in 1433, expeditions were halted
and the geet was retired and ultimately burned. Ending China’s
navy was one of the major changes made by Yongle’s
descendants. The burning of the Chinese geet let a power
vacuum in the South China Sea, which in the sixteenth century
was flled by Japanese and Chinese coastal pirates. Finally,
shortly ater Yongle and Zheng He’s deaths, China was
challenged from the north again. Sixteen years ater Zheng He’s
fnal expedition, Yongle’s great grandson, the sixth Ming
emperor, was captured and held hostage by Mongol raiders in
1449.
Questions for Discussion
•
What do you think was the most signiQcant element of Zheng
He’s seafaring missions?
•
With such a commanding technological lead, why did China
turn away from the outside world and suspend exploration?
•
What might the world look like now, if the Chinese Empire
had continued along the lines begun by Zheng He?
Modern World History 43
whole scheme of things works. All good things are didcult to
achieve and bad things are very easy to get.”
“The strength of a nation derives from the integrity of the
home.”
“The superior man understands what is right; the inferior
man understands what will sell.”
“Never give a sword to a man who can’t dance.”
“We should feel sorrow, but not sink under its oppression.”
“Imagination is more important than knowledge.”
“When you know a thing, to hold that you know it; and when
you do not know a thing, to allow that you do not know it –
this is knowledge.”
Source: http://www.quoteambition.com/famous-confuciusquotes/
Primary Source Supplement #2: Zheng He’s Voyages
The Ming Shi-lu (The Veritable Records of the Ming) are the
imperial annals of the Ming Dynasty emperors (1368-1644).
The National University of Singapore has published an online
archive of over 2,800 pages of Geoi Wade’s translations of
the annals . They contain a wealth of information about Ming
China, including twenty-two references to Chinese Admiral
Zheng He and his diplomatic voyages, dated from July 1405
to March 1431. Here are some entries, describing Zheng He’s
missions and incidents related to them. In several, Zheng is
described as being sent as an emissary to fan countries. The
Mandarin word fan translates roughly as ordinary or mortal,
suggesting the attitude of the Chinese emperors toward
44 Dan Allosso and Tom Williford
foreign nations and their rulers. The English word “enfeoi” is
also not well known. It means to grant something to a lesser
lord or noble, like a befdom. Entries are dated by imperial era
dates, with western calendar dates in parentheses:
“The eunuch Zheng He and others were sent to take
Imperial orders of instruction to the various countries in the
Western Ocean, and to confer upon the kings of those
countries patterned bne silks and variegated thin silks
interwoven with gold thread, as appropriate.”
Yongle: Year 3, Month 6, Day 15 (11 Jul 1405)
“The Eunuch Director Zheng He who had been sent to the
various countries of the Western Ocean, returned, bringing
the pirate Chen Zuyi and others in fetters. Previously, when
he had arrived at Old Port, he came across Zuyi and so on and
sent people to bring them to negotiated pacibcation. Zuyi and
the others feigned surrender but secretly plotted to attack the
Imperial army. He and the others found out about this and,
marshalling the troops, prepared defenses. When the forces
led by Zuyi attacked, He sent his troops out to do battle. Zuyi
suiered a great defeat. Over 5,000 of the bandit gang were
killed, while ten of the bandit ships were burnt and seven
captured. Further, two false bronze seals were seized and
three prisoners, including Zuyi, were taken alive. When they
arrived at the capital, it was ordered that all the prisoners be
beheaded.”
Yongle: Year 5, Month 9, Day 2 (2 Oct 1407)
“The eunuch Zheng He and others, who had been sent
as envoys to the various countries in the Western Ocean,
returned and presented Yalie Kunaier, the captured king of
the country of Sri Lanka, and his family members. Previously,
He and the others had been sent as envoys to the various
fan countries. However, when they reached Sri Lanka, Yalie
Kunaier was insulting and disrespectful. He wished to harm
He, but He came to know of this and left. Yalie Kunaier also
acted in an unfriendly way to neighboring countries and
Modern World History 45
repeatedly intercepted and robbed their envoys. All the fan
countries suiered from his actions. When He returned, he
again passed Sri Lanka and the king enticed him to the
country. The king then had his son Nayan demand gold, silver
and precious objects, but He would not give these to him.
The king then secretly dispatched over 50,000 fan troops to
rob He’s ships. They also felled trees to create obstructions
and impede He’s route of return, so that he could not render
assistance. He and the others found out about this and they
gathered their force and set oi back to their ships. However,
the route had already been blocked. He thus spoke to his
subordinates, saying: ‘The majority of the troops have already
been dispatched. The middle of the country will be empty.’
He also said: ‘Our merchants and troops are isolated and
nervous and will be unable to act. If they are attacked by
surprise, the attackers will achieve their purpose.’ Thus, he
secretly ordered persons to go to the ships by another route
with orders that the government troops were to bght to the
death in opposing the attackers. He then personally led 2,000
of his troops through a by-path and attacked the royal city by
surprise. They took the city and captured alive Yalie Kunaier,
his family members and chieftains. The fan army returned
and surrounded the city and several battles were fought, but
He greatly defeated them. He and the others subsequently
returned to the Court. The assembled ministers requested
that the king be executed. The Emperor pitied the king for his
stupidity and ignorance and leniently ordered that he and the
others be released and given food and clothing. The Ministry
of Rites was ordered to deliberate on and select a worthy
member of the family to be established as the country’s king
in order to handle the country’s sacribces.”
Yongle: Year 9, Month 6, Day 16 (6 Jul 1411)
“As the envoys from the various countries of Calicut, Java,
Melaka, Champa, Sri Lanka, Mogadishu, Liushan, Nanboli,
Bulawa, Aden, Samudera, Malin, Lasa, Hormuz, Cochin,
Nanwuli, Shaliwanni and Pahang, as well as from the Old
Port Pacibcation Superintendency, were departing to return
home, suits of clothing made from patterned bne silks were
conferred upon all of them. The eunuch Zheng He and others
46 Dan Allosso and Tom Williford
were sent with Imperial orders as well as embroidered bne
silks, silk gauzes, variegated thin silks and other goods to
confer upon the kings of these countries, to confer a seal
upon Keyili, the king of the country of Cochin, and to enfeoi a
mountain in his country as the ‘Mountain Which Protects the
Country’.
The Emperor personally composed and conferred an
inscription for the tablet, as follows:
‘The civilizing incuences and Heaven and Earth intermingle.
Everything which is covered and contained has been placed in
the charge of the Moulder, who manifests the benevolence of
the Creator. The world does not have two ultimate principles
and people do not have two hearts. They are sorrowful or
happy in the same way and have the same feelings and
desires. How can they be divided into the near and the
distant!
One who is outstanding in ruling the people should do his
best to treat the people as his children. The Book of Odes
says: `The Imperial domain stretches for thousands of li, and
there the people have settled, while the borders reach to
the four seas.’ The Book of Documents says: ‘To the East,
extending to the sea, to the West reaching to the shifting
sands and stretching to the limits of North and South, culture
and civilizing incuences reach to the four seas.’ I rule all under
Heaven and soothe and govern the Chinese and the yi. I look
on all equally and do not diierentiate between one and the
other. I promote the ways of the ancient Sagely Emperors and
Perspicacious Kings, so as to accord with the will of Heaven
and Earth. I wish all of the distant lands and foreign regions to
have their proper places.
Those who respond to the incuences and move towards
culture are not singular. The country of Cochin is far away in
the South-west, on the shore of the vast ocean, further distant
than the other fan countries. It has long inclined towards
Chinese culture and been accepting of civilizing incuences.
When the Imperial orders arrived, the people there went
down on their hands and knees and were greatly excited.
They loyally came to allegiance and then, looking to Heaven,
they bowed and all said: `How fortunate we are that the
Modern World History 47
civilizing incuences of the Chinese sages should reach us. For
the last several years, the country has had fertile soil, and
the people have had houses in which to live, enough bsh and
turtles to eat, and enough cloth and silk to make clothes.
Parents have looked after their children and the young have
respected their elders. Everything has been prosperous and
pleasing. There has been no oppression or contention. In
the mountains no savage beasts have appeared and in the
streams no noxious bshes have been seen. The sea has
brought forth treasures and the forests have produced
excellent woods. Everything has been in bountiful supply,
several times more bountiful than in ordinary times. There
have been no destructive winds, and damaging rains have
not occurred. Confusion has been eliminated and there is no
evil to be found. This is all indeed the result of the civilizing
incuences of the Sage.’ I possess but slight virtuous power.
How could I have been capable of this! Is it not the elders and
people who brought this about? I am now enfeodng Keyili as
king of the country and conferring upon him a seal so that
he can govern the people. I am also enfeodng the mountain
in the country as ‘Mountain Which Protects the Country’. An
engraved tablet is to be erected on this mountain to record
these facts forever. It will also be engraved as follows: The
high peak which rules the land, guards this ocean state, It
spits bre and fumes, bringing great prosperity to the country
below, It brings rain and sunshine in a timely way, and
soothes away troubles, It brings fertile soil and drives oi evil
vapors, It shelters the people, and eliminates calamities and
disharmony, Families are joyful together, and people have
plenty throughout the year, The mountain’s height is as the
ocean’s depths! This poem is inscribed to record all for
prosperity.”
Yongle: Year 14, Month 12, Day 10 (28 Dec 1416)
“The envoys from the 16 countries of Hormuz and so on
departed on their return to their countries. Paper money and
biao-li of silks were conferred upon them. In addition, the
Eunuch Director Zheng He and others were sent with Imperial
orders, together with brocades, bne silks, silk gauzes,
48 Dan Allosso and Tom Williford
damasks and thin silks to confer upon the kings of these
countries. They departed together with the envoys.”
Yongle: Year 19, Month 1, Day 30 (3 Mar 1421)
“The Eunuch Director Zheng He and others were sent with
an Imperial proclamation to go and instruct the various fan
countries. The proclamation read: ‘I have respectfully taken
on the mandate of Heaven and reverently inherited the Great
Rule from the Taizu Gao Emperor, the Taizong Wen Emperor
and the Renzong Zhao Emperor. I rule over the ten thousand
states, manifest the supreme benevolence of my ancestors
and spread peace to all things. I have already issued a general
amnesty to all under Heaven and declared the
commencement of the Xuande reign. All has begun anew.
You, the various fan countries far across the ocean, will not
yet have heard. Now I am especially sending the Eunuch
Directors Zheng He and Wang Jinghong carrying this
proclamation with which to instruct you. You must all respect
and accord with the Way of Heaven, care for your people and
keep them in peace. Thus will you all enjoy the prosperity
of Great Peace.’ Variegated silks, as appropriate, were to be
conferred upon the rulers or chiefs of all 20 countries through
which the eunuchs were to pass, including Hormuz, Sri Lanka,
Calicut, Melaka, Cochin, Bulawa, Mogadishu, Nanboli,
Samudera, Lasa, Liushan, Aru, Ganbali, Aden, Zuofaer, Zhubu,
Jiayile and so on, as well as the Old Port Pacibcation
Superintendency.
Xuande: Year 5, Month 6, Day 9 (29 Jun 1430)
“The chieftain Wubaochina and others from the country
of Melaka, arrived at the Court. They advised that the king
of their country wanted to personally come to Court and
oier tribute, but that he had been obstructed by the king
of the country of Siam. They also said that Siam had long
wanted to invade their country and that their country wanted
to memorialize but had had no one who could write the
memorial. At this time, the king had ordered that these three
ministers secretly attach themselves to a Samuderan tribute
ship and come to Court. They requested that the Court send
Modern World History 49
people to instruct the king of Siam to no longer oppress or
mistreat their country and that thereby they would be
unendingly grateful for the Court’s grace. The Emperor
ordered the Auxiliary Ministry of Rites to confer rewards upon
Wubaochina and the others and to send them back to their
country with the ships of the eunuch director Zheng He.
Zheng He was ordered to take Imperial orders of instruction
for the king of the country of Siam as follows:
‘I rule all under Heaven and look on all equally. You have
been able to respect the Court and have repeatedly sent
envoys to come to Court and oier tribute. I am pleased with
your service. However, recently, it has been heard that the
king of the country of Melaka wanted to personally come to
Court, but was obstructed by you. In my opinion, this certainly
cannot have been your will, king. Rather, it must have been
some of your attendants, who are unable to think deeply
about things, who have obstructed avenues and started strife
with neighboring states. How can such actions be a way to
long maintain prosperity? You, king should respect my orders,
develop good relations with your neighbors, examine and
instruct your subordinates and not act recklessly or
aggressively. Then it will be seen that you are able to respect
Heaven and serve the superior, protect the country and the
people’s peace and maintain good relations with neighboring
states. This will accord with my will of looking on all equally.’
The Ministry of Rites said:
‘There are precedents for conferring rewards on tribute
envoys from the various fan. However, Wubaochina did not
bring any tribute and there is no precedent on which to base
rewards.’
The Emperor said:
‘This distant person has come tens of thousands of li from
abroad to complain of injustice. How can we not reward him!’
Accordingly, ramie-silk clothing, biao-li of variegated silks,
silks and cotton cloth were conferred upon him in the same
quantities as those conferred upon tribute envoys from other
countries.
Xuande: Year 6, Month 2, Day 7 (20 Mar 1431)
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