discussion board interaction

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Weekly discussion board interaction on public policy

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PADM530 Discussion WK1 Scenarios
Topic: W1: Public policy introduction
In order to learn some of the important ideas about how to do policy analysis, we are going to do
something a little different this week.
I have several scenarios below.
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For your original response, select one and argue for it.
•
For your three responses to others, you must respond to three different scenarios and
argue against each of them.
•
This means that you will be discussing at least four different scenarios.
As you argue for or against, use logic and facts rather than emotions. Think about long-term
consequences and unintended consequences as well as the short-term consequences and intended
consequences.
If I see there are plenty of original responses on one of the scenarios, I may close that scenario,
so it is to your benefit to post early in the week in order to get the scenario you want.
IMPORTANT NOTES:
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The subject line needs to be the scenario title.
•
If I close a scenario for original responses, anyone posting an original response about that
scenario after it has been closed is fine but will not earn credit.
•
If you respond to the same scenario more than once, that is fine, but you will not earn
credit for subsequent responses on that same scenario.
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The idea here is to get you to think critically and present a case about a policy in a
professional manner. No “yelling” or “nastiness” allowed. Polite disagreement based on
facts and evidence is professional. That is always welcome in my classes.
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Special Note
You have several assignments during this class. You need to select a different policy for each
one. Policies similar to the ones in the scenarios are forbidden as we will already have done these
in class.
A little later, you will be asked to share what your topic will be for your final. I track all of these,
so you may wish to look at the assignments and choose your topic for each one early in the class
to make this easier.
Scenarios
Monthly Stipend
Because the cost of living in a city is so high, the mayor has proposed providing a $500 per
month stipend to each household within the city limits.
Sanctuary City
Cooperation between local, state, and federal law enforcement agencies has been a longstanding
tradition. A city has proposed that if someone arrested for a local or state crime is not legally
present in the country, the local law enforcement agency will not notify Immigration and
Customs Enforcement (the relevant federal law enforcement agency), which is a change to its
traditional practice.
Plastic Straws
A state has forbidden restaurants from providing plastic straws to their customers.
Minimum Wage
A city has set the minimum wage for all businesses operating within its limits at $15 per hour.
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Concealed Carry
A state has forbidden its citizens from carrying concealed firearms, except for law enforcement
officers. A county within that state has created a category of reserve sheriff’s deputies open to any
resident legally allowed to own a gun, which would allow any such resident who chooses to do
so to become a law enforcement officer and therefore legally allowed to carry a concealed
firearm. The policy here is the new category of reserve officers.
COVID-19 Immunization
After COVID-19 immunizations were available for those age 12 and older and were in plentiful
supply, a city enacted a law that requires every individual age 12 or older to prove full COVID
vaccination in order to be indoors in any business.
There are exceptions for medical or religious reasons, but those people must show proof of a
recent negative test or stay outside the building.
Masks are still required.
YOU MUST ARGUE AGAINST EACH OF THESE SCENARIOS
Student #1 (TS) Minimum Wage
Minimum Wage
A city has set the minimum wage for all businesses operating within its limits at $15 per hour.
The simple fact that cost of living has skyrocketed while minimum wage has remained stagnant
an unchanged since 2009 is arguably criminal. “Raising the minimum wage to $15 by 2025 will
do a lot of good: Lift 900,000 people out of poverty, Raise income for 17 million people (one in
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ten workers) to the tune of $509 billion over 10 years, and potentially increase wages for another
10 million people who currently make close to $15. (Business Insider, 2023)
In a time where debates in the United States focus on inflation, cost of living, and increasing
wealth disparity something must change. That change is raising the minimum wage nationally to
ensure people have a living wage. This minimum wage raise provides workers a fighting chance
of basic living, but barely. A standard two-bedroom rental unit takes a U.S. worker to make
$24.90 per hour to afford. (National Low Income Housing Coalition).
Arguments against raising the minimum wage has centered around the cost of goods increasing,
but we have seen the price of goods increase due to a global pandemic, supply chain issues, and
simply the greed of employers who price hike. This policy is a necessity for everyday workers
who deserve their dignity back and to simply afford to live in the harshest monetary
environment.
Finally, consumers have already proven that with stipends, increased wages, and the ability to
participate in consumer spending companies benefit. This policy is long overdue, and I support
not only this city mandate, but would support a national increase as well.
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Student #2 (KL) Sanctuary City
Hello everyone,
In order to understand The People and Government roles in a state/country, we must first
distinguish perceptions from economic and government lures and what they say about us
individually as a nation. Local law enforcement agencies shall be granted not to notify
Immigration & Customs Enforcement, as cities have proposed, because this is a reflection of The
United States of America. Local communication with cities is a failure of electors and
administration efforts and weaponizes the federal government and limited oversight in rural/local
communities to pin the tail on the donkey, i.e., the citizens, to fix the dilemma. Policy design can
unpack and address a slow but continued process of doing their duty; people come here because
they are not only seeking opportunity but are willing to take on the labor and jobs that Americans
have taken for granted until now.
Performing their basic duty to the U.S. more than some citizens who are individuals, groups,
&/or families of their own accord, allegiances, loyalty, debt, etc. Fleeing from persecution or
working for security, Americans who are in the same general category or situations as
immigrants do not have to look far into the past to find someone related who came here for the
same reasons. We can always do more as a country, but our economy, like our communities, has
to be held accountable for its lack of collaboration to weave out the corruption in and around
areas, and vice versa of unsustainable vices that impoverish more and more around us in order
take advantage of people that vulnerable like the elderly, children, etc. Michael Howlett, in 2014,
points out the intellectual history of policy design and studies. Utilizing old on new policies
while simultaneously understanding and maintaining contemporary policy efforts on trying to
imagine and predict alternatives to orient properly, a quality vs. quantity vice of the
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informational pathway to a well-rounded, with specific implementation tools, as well as a
general approach (p. 190-191).
In similar methods, in order to apply pressure on elected local to state officials, companies,
organizations, churches, etc., in rural, small communities, and up to the city requires
participation by these exact actors, especially the majority of a party in power in an area to not
weaponize federal agencies to their own political gain. Sanctuary cities, for example, have been a
topic of discussion as non-border states have been surprised and bombarded with migrants while
double-dipping for so long. Evangelia Petridou (2014) covered a Punctuated Equilibrium Theory
(PET), which comprises long periods of stability and points out irregularities in the short term.
However, the caveat, like sanctuary cities, appeals to the idea of being systematized within the
machine, where in its vice to compete with the external of the system, it’s boiling cause and
effect, however irregular, the internal side of new information not aligning with X or Z and each
state is further broadening &/or centralizing around a manifestation of XYZ (Evangelia
Petridou, 2014 p. S18-S19).
For example, while economically, the rich can always be a point of blame (for too often our own
self-gratification), they, also have a network they play. Although, at times, it’s only a small part,
compared to the grand scheme of things, like a minority of the whole companies, organizations,
churches, etc., that are engaging with anyone and everyone for assistance. Particular individuals,
groups, or families, whether left or right, we as a nation will never understand the deeper-rooted
conundrums of domestic &/or foreign ills if we do not additionally understand the international
& global network of corruption pinning us against one another. Migrants are not our enemy
(unless we are talking about ourselves).
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Contrary to the last point, the government, in general, rightfully worries about the proportions of
accountability it holds to uphold the social contract of middle-out and bottom-up citizens, let
alone migrants showcasing their potential and commitment to the values of Americans. Migrants
are being weaponized by top-down efforts that benefit the economy, especially in times of
inflation (unless the goal is to continue to expand, in that cause the natural effects of creating a
cause that results in instability), whether organizations, communities, &/or elites prioritize their
strategic in-group stalling tactics of the appeared accountability measures they are taking against
ill out-group individuals while utilizing the public for support and backing of projected promises
of how to combat the perceived ill by their in-groups happening under their watch, while
ironically kicking out the individuals and groups that are understanding the game. And what
better way to leverage such than using a biased perception of belief such as the bible of
persecuting the very individuals that are pushing them forward, and if they fail, “well, oh well.
Guess they didn’t want it.”
One could argue companies and organizations, when times get difficult, leverage the public &
economy to further pressure the government and their resources to showcase a point, that
whether current or next administration, to play by the game and such prepare, predict, &/or
concoct measures externally to international relations and indirect/direct links of crime
syndicates to benefit or contractually push migration at the right time to leverage their wealth
and power. Conversely, and at the same time, this is a tactic of war, i.e., a perfect “get in while
it’s hot” methodology” (and shall be addressed very slowly and precisely as there will be plenty
of overlap that is reasonable measures as to why such resorts would be taken).
Hence, the only way to understand their role is to engage in the questionable conceptualization of
the topic as an interpretation basis that is often, by default, a collective differentiation of
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categorification based on perceptions, and the disconnects only exacerbate the relative reality of
morals. If they are not generally understood by the individuals and groups within the collective
(Howlett et al. 2015, p. 209-2011), let alone aesthetics and experience of the government’s role to
inquire on how to govern and why we should care. The economy is put forth like a Twinkie at the
end of a stick, and we are on that treadmill, i.e., it’s a driver, like when someone communicates
and does not move, or vice versa. The economy is a tool to get people to fill their vices in
whichever way fits their “uniqueness,” i.e. a form of showcasing one can be manipulated
regardless of what they say or do, what do and say when no one is looking, and shall they be
distracted enough not hinder the future underneath them, meaning the future.
The government on the other hand, role, especially in this situation when things are getting out of
hand, i.e. instability and especially before/after showcasing insurrection is possible, is (along
with its several dimensions of separation of powers) to neutralize/reset a foundation to ideally recalibrate to the lowest margins of stabilized measurements upon to ideally measure projections
and spikes of X or Z irregularities. Policies, therefore, shall encompass the whole by leveraging
the public to group stability &/or distraction from individuals in which ways they may or may
not understand, and hence the at least engagement of the discourse and dialogue is essential into
when, where, why, and how participation occurs so there for a more clear image can be left for
the individuals &/or small groups willing to attain to be higher layers of tolerance and
malleability, than the previous individual &/or administration forced upon the public or that the
public currently coordinates around.
Cities and groups are only exposing their desires in which to become, and yet the rest of the state
is being held accountable for such. Cities that claim to be sanctuary cities are however today
going to be bombarded until they give up such title or if they give the impression that it is too
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much, but a perhaps proper response is ensuing their efforts with neighboring cities &/or states
identify the state of the national community to come together. The states that are not living up to
the growing pressures of what it means to be a sanctuary city are NOT a representation of the
ideal, as the ones that have adapted to the growing pressures &/or taken on the challenge of the
2020s migrant crisis and ARE a desire and hope in who to become as a nation.
References
Howlett, M. (2014). From the “old” to the “new” policy design: design thinking beyond markets
and collaborative governance. Policy Sciences, 47(3), 187–207. https://doiorg.ezproxy1.apus.edu/10.1007/s11077-014-9199-0
Howlett, M., Ramesh, M., & Wu, X. (2015). Understanding the persistence of policy failures:
The role of politics, governance and uncertainty. Public Policy and Administration, 30(3-4),
209–220. https://doi.org/10.1177/0952076715593139
Petridou, E. (2014). Theories of the Policy Process: Contemporary Scholarship and Future
Directions. Policy Studies Journal, 42, S12–S32. https://doiorg.ezproxy1.apus.edu/10.1111/psj.12054
Student #3 (ZC) Covid-19 Immunization
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Amid the COVID- 19 Pandemic, our city has prioritized residents’ health by enacting a law that
makes vaccinations mandatory for everyone age 12 and older. Those who, due to medical and
religious reasons, are exempted must show proof of a current negative test or stay outside.
This action aims at protecting the general community and especially those at higher risk,
including seniors and those with underlying medical conditions, as well as to prevent the virus
from spreading.
It also intends to create awareness about the great impact that this pandemic has on peoples’
health and sometimes lives.
From the public administration perspective, this action will help public entities continue to serve
communities. From an economic point of view, it will pave the way for business to survive since
vaccinated employees who are expected to work in person will be able to report onsite, and
customers will feel safe to interact with them.
Our authorities are aware that this is a controversial issue but as Brian W. Head has stated:
“Rational and reasonable deliberative processes can become sidetracked by media- driven
controversy” (Head, 2015) and, given the circumstances, our city must prioritize health over
political disagreements.
This decision is framed within an evidence- informed policy (Head, 2015) and even though we
need to act quickly, we have not been rushed into making it. “By November 2020, 11 million
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cases and over 250,000 deaths had been confirmed (…) yet some have continuously been
downplaying the virus” (Sylvester, 2021). Given that the COVID 19 is in progress and that the
vaccines against COVID 19 are new, this action will be monitored and evaluated every quarter.
References
Head, B (2016) Towards More “Evidence – Informed” Policy Making? Public Administration
Review, Vol. 76 (3), 472- 484. Retrieved
from: http://ezproxy.apus.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=
ehh&AN=114885402&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Sylvester, S. (2021) COVID-19 and Motivated Reasoning. The Influence of Knowledge on
COVID- Related Policy and Health Behavior. Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 102 (5), 23412359. Retrieved
from: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHjIloLM_JoCztr2keYdV8f1ib
HmDucods679W_YPnffAEEyPcHcYmzO2xDMCNpI13CAAAA2zCB2AYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoI
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spk2Uhmc8ldN9JOlMe2oJ_DDcLbLBcGC4Olv7unAw==
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PADM530 PUBLIC POLICY ALL WKS READING MATERIALS
WK1
Public Policy and Politics
Welcome to Week 1.
Public policy includes the specific actions government takes to rectify a public situation,
to establish goals and develop methods to accomplish them, to set guidelines and best-practices,
to communicate agency expectations and standards, etc. Our textbook authors discuss five public
policy contexts that affect public policy: social, economic, political, government and cultural.
For each policy action, there is one or more contexts at play for its creation, modification, or
rejection.
Introduction
Public Policy is broad term that describes an action or strategy that a governmental
organization takes to address a problem or perceived problem. The action or strategy can be
formed at the federal, state, or local level. Either public policy can be for the good of the citizens
as a group or it can be for benefitting some special interest group.
Created in haste, the results of public policy can be detrimental for many people and
often policy needs to be rescinded or changed. Policy may be set by law makers or by agencies.
The impacts or the results of a policy may not be what was intended. It is vital to examine any
policy from all perspectives, to examine the good and bad about the policy, to examine the longterm consequences as well as the short-term consequences, and to think about what unintended
consequences may result.
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Policy Analysis
The analysis of policy either takes place before or after policy is completed. Analysis of
completed policy allows for the identification of alternative options, the consideration of all
consequences and individual perspectives prior to the best one selected.
Select each tab to learn more.
Framework for Policy AnalysisThree Approaches to Policy Analysis
One of the most accepted models for policy analysis is that set forth by Carl V. Patton and David
S. Sawicki, which has the following six steps (Patton and Sawicki 1986, p.26):
1. Verify, define, and detail the problem.
2. Establish evaluation criteria.
3. Identify alternative policies.
4. Evaluate these alternatives. Once alternative policies have been identified, they can be
evaluated by deciding the points in favor and against each one.
5. Select from alternative policies.
6. Monitor or evaluate progress. This step (especially in the flowchart below) suggests that
the policy has been implemented.
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Official Policymakers
Many individuals and groups share power over policy, but the ones that come to mind for many
are the official policymakers, which includes elected and appointed government officials. A
system of checks and balances distributes the authority to make policy to prevent abuse of power
and guarantee individual liberties, and ideally, to avoid inefficiency, duplication, and unnecessary
expense.
The balance of power between the federal government and state governments has shifted over
time. The United States Constitution gave the federal government limited powers and
responsibilities, giving all powers not specifically named to the states and to the people.
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Today, national defense, transportation, and interstate commerce, are generally the domain of the
federal government. Though state and local governments were generally in charge in areas such
as public education, and law enforcement, the federal government has found ways to use funding
to have larger roles in those areas that were not specifically listed in the Constitution for the
federal government.
Policy Actors and Conditions
All three branches of government are generally involved in the policy process. Additionally,
others may be policy actors.
Citizens
Americans have been involved in government since colonial times. While citizen participation
can be difficult to obtain on a regular basis, citizens do vote and often become involved for
special projects. While it is not a requirement for citizens to be involved, it is an option as they
are stakeholders in public policies.
Special interest groups
Special interest groups are often involved when they wish to influence policy. Citizens may
become part of a special interest group and act on behalf of the issues they support. These issues
may be good for the citizens as a whole or they may be good for only one group of people.
Examples of well-known special interest groups are National Association for the Advancement
of Colored People (NAACP) and the National Abortion Rights Action League (NARAL). Some
special interest groups hire former cabinet officials, military members and Congress members as
lobbyists as they already have knowledge about lawmaking and friends who are law makers.
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Political parties
A political party’s first concern is maintaining power and controlling government; public policy
is a secondary concern.
Research institutes
Media
The media can greatly influence policy through the way it reports public attitudes and opinions.
Policymakers may also use the media to shape the public’s opinions and attitudes towards policy
issues. Media are generally biased.
Conditions Affecting Policy making
Some things to examine when analyzing policy are who benefits and who pays, if the policy is
politically feasible, who will support it, whether or not it is cost-efficient. What the public
opinion is, and what economic and conditions are. Remember: Most policy is a result of
compromise between various parties.
Influences on Policy Making
Public Opinion in Policy Making
Public opinion often influences policy. Those in Congress, the media, and groups supporting and
opposing policy will influence public opinion. This is most important for major policy items. In
most cases, however, the general public doesn’t pay attention to what Congress does on a daily
basis.
Influence of the Media and Internet on Policy Making
Internet and media outlets most certainly have the biggest influence in determining which issues
rise to national prominence. Younger Americans tend to use social media, much of which is
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simply opinion based. There exists a strong relationship between media agenda vs. what citizens
and non-citizens believe the public agenda to be.
Examinations of the relationships among media coverage, public opinion and policy making
show strong correlations, with the correlation between the media and policy making being the
strongest.
Models of Public Policymaking
Many follow several models of policymaking with the most common included below. More than
one can apply.
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Institutionalism, which sees public policy as an institutional (government) output.
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Process, which sees policymaking as a political activity.
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Group Theory, which sees policymaking as a struggle among special interest groups.
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Elite theory, which sees policymaking as involving those who have the power
implementing their ideas whether or not those ideas are best for the entire country.
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Rationalism, which sees policymaking as an effort by decision makers alone to make the
best choice for the largest number of people.
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Incrementalism, which sees policymakers as continually making small changes to enact
what they want whether it is for the best of the whole or not.
Conclusion
Public policy and its creation is complex and requires policy makers and analysts to consider
many variables, including different points of view, long-term consequences, short-term
consequences, unintended consequences, who will pay, and what group will benefit as well as
what group will suffer.
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Readings Chapter
1: Nature and History of International Law (Grant Text) Chapter
2: Sources of International Law (Grant Text) Chapter 3: International Law and Municipal Law
(Grant Text) They Bought a Caribbean Island to Start Their Own Country, Richard Collett, CNN,
March 10, 2022: https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/islandia-lets-buy-an-islandmicronation/index.html International
Law: https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/international_law Uphold International Law:
https://www.un.org/en/our-work/uphold-international-law What is International Law?:
https://world101.cfr.org/how-world-works-and-sometimes-doesnt/globalgovernance/whatinternational-law A Guide To The Basics Of International Law:
https://www.law.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/AGuide-to-the-Basics-of-IntlLaw.pdf Abdul Hamid Kwarteng, Is International Law Really Law?, Asian Res. J. of Arts & Soc.
Sci., March 6, 2018 at 5(4): 1-9, available at
https://journalarjass.com/index.php/ARJASS/article/view/11384 Harlan Grant Cohen, Finding
International Law: Rethinking the Doctrine of Sources, 93 Iowa L. Rev. 65 (November, 2007),
available at https://advance-lexiscom.ezproxy2.apus.edu/api/document?collection=analyticalmaterials&id=urn:contentItem:4RFS
-X1K0-02BM-Y0VC-00000-00&context=1516831
References
Cogan, A., Sharpe, S., & Hertzberg, J. (1986). Citizen participation. The Practice of state and
regional planning. Chicago, IL: American Planning Association.
Parker, B. (2002). Planning Analysis: The Theory of Citizen Participation. University of Oregon.
Retrieved from http://pages.uoregon.edu/rgp/PPPM613/class10theory.htm.
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Patton, C. V., & Sawicki, D.S. (1986). Basic Methods of Policy Analysis and Planning.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Image Citations
“A flowchart the shows the six steps of the policy analysis framework: 1. Verify, define and
detail the problem, 2. Establish evaluation criteria, 3. Identify alternative policies, 4. Evaluate
alternative policies, 5. Display and distinguish among alternative policies, and 6. Monitor the
implemented policy.” by
http://pages.uoregon.edu/rgp/PPPM613/class10theory.htm.
“Washington DC Skyline with Washington Monument” by
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Washington_dc_skyline.jpg.
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Welcome to Week 2.
Public Policymaking
Overview
This week we continue our exploration of public policy by looking at the theories of
politics and public policy. It is important to remember that theories are used to analyze. In this
case, they are used to analyze how public policy is made. Often, more than one theory will apply
to a policy decision. We are going to examine four of the more common theories.
Introduction
This week, we examine a few of the theories of public policy and politics. Remember that
we use theories to analyze how policy is made. More than one theory will often apply to a
decision. Some of the more common theories are:
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Elite Theory
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Group Theory
•
Institutional Theory
•
Rational choice Theory
•
Political System Theory
The Policy Process Defined
The International Journal of Policy Science opens in new windowhas some good information
about these.
As you study theory, remember a hypothesis is a best guess at the answer to a question with
an unknown answer. It is a tentative explanation or an educated guess. On the other hand,
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a theory is a principle that explains phenomena that has already occurred and has been
proven. It is imperative to remember that they are not the same.
It is important to remember that theories are used to analyze. In this case, they are used to
analyze how public policy is made. Often, more than one theory will apply to a policy decision.
First, we will examine five of the more common theories and as we move on from theory to
practice. The policy process model will look at the various stages of the policy process, and the
roles and relationships of policy actors within each stage. This model is the logical sequence of
activities regarding any new public policy, and there are six basic stages of the public policy
process.
The Policy Process Model
As we examine policy process, we notice the policy process model examines the stages
and roles of the relationships in each state.
For the sake of simplicity, we will look at the procedure for federal law. Remember, this may be
somewhat different at the state and local levels.
The University of Texas at Austin opens in new window shows the public policy process as a
cycle with the most common steps included as:
1. Problem identification
2. Agenda setting
3. Policy making
4. Budgeting
5. Implementation
6. Education
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While various sources have countless steps, with many use different names, most follow the
same outlined procedure above. You can begin anywhere in the cycle, but we will begin with the
identification of the problem. A policy problem exists because there is a need or a dissatisfaction
with the current state of affairs. People begin to look for alternatives and find a place on the
agenda so the issue can be presented. Once the issue is on the agenda, those who create policy
put the alternative they wish to implement before Congress and the alternative goes through the
process of becoming accepted.
A detailed description as to how Congress enacts law(s) in how laws are made is
designed to assist you learn about the legislative process. At the federal level, this process
requires congressional and presidential action as defined in Article 1, Section 7 of the U.S.
Constitution. While it has become more complicated with many more details the basic idea is
that it has to pass both houses of Congress before going to the President for a signature. If the
President vetoes the bill, it is returned to Congress. Congress can override that veto by passing
the bill again with a two-thirds majority, in which case the law becomes a law without the
President’s signature. The president might also take no action. After ten days (not including
Sundays), the bill becomes a law, but only if congress is still in session.
Complicated, sure! However, the process is not yet complete. Congress must further provide
appropriations prior to funds allocated on the new law. This brings issues of its own as the only
money Congress has to spend is money it collects in taxes and fees (generally paid by the
people) or borrows (which increases the debt).
This leads to implementation of the policy, in which the executive branch carries out the
new law. As the law begins to affect the people, Congress and the General Accounting Office
(GAO) evaluate what they have done. Outside entities, such as think tanks, the media, and
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citizens also evaluate how the law has worked or not worked. In addition to examining the
intended effects of policy, these groups examine the unintended consequences. For example, in
one area, taxes might be raised so much that people who are working leave the area in greater
numbers than before. This could result in a net loss of tax income since there are fewer taxpayers
to pay the taxes.
References
Anyebe, A.A. (2018). An overview of approaches to the study of public policy. International
Journal of Political Science. 4(1) pp8-17 retrieved June 22, 2021,
from https://www.arcjournals.org/pdfs/ijps/v4-i1/2.pdf
Easton, D. (1965). A Systems Analysis of Political Life. New York: Wiley.
Foreign Assistance: Selected Agencies’ Monitoring and Evaluation Policies Generally Address
Leading Practices (Rep. No. GAO -16- 861R). (2016). Retrieved
from https://www.gao.gov/assets/690/680042.pdf
The University of Texas at Austin. (n.d.). The Public Policy Process. Retrieved
from http://www.laits.utexas.edu/gov310/PEP/policy/
Image Citations
“The United States Capitol” by
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Uscapitolindaylight.jpg.
“Flooding after Hurricane Harvey” by
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Support_during_Hurricane_Harvey_(TX)_(50).jpg.
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“President Trump signing the Hurricane Harvey bill.” by
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:President_Trump_signing_Hurricane_Harvey_bill_(cr
opped).