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Read the entire article. Many journal articles can be quite complex and use complicated wording and statistics. You may need to read the article a few times before you get a full grasp of it.
Write a citation for the journal article at the top of the review. You will need the title of the article, the journal where the article is published, the volume and issue number, publication date, author’s name and page numbers for the article.
Write a summary of the article. This should be roughly two to three pages, depending on the length of the article. Include the purpose for the article, how research was conducted, the results and other pertinent information from the article.
Discuss the meaning or implication of the results from this study. This should be one to two paragraphs. This is where you offer your opinion on the article. Discuss any flaws with the article, how you think it could have been better and what you think it all means.
Write one paragraph discussing how the author could expand on the results, what the information means in the big picture, what future research should focus on or how future research could move the topic forward. Discuss how knowledge in the area could be expanded.
Cite any direct quotes or paraphrases from the article. Use the author’s name, the year of publication and the page number (for quotes) in the in-text citation.
This is the article:
Crow, M. S., & Adrion, B. (2011). Focal concerns and police use of force: Examining the factors associated with Taser use. Police Quarterly, 14(4), 366-387.The use of force by police officers is a regular source of interest among the public, media, scholars, and criminal justice professionals. Tasers have emerged as an important and increasingly popular technology for police departments. Despite the increasing adoption and use of Tasers and the controversy surrounding their use, relatively little prior research examines the factors associated with Taser use by police officers. Guided by the focal concerns theoretical perspective, the current study uses data from a medium-size police department to analyze the factors that influence Taser use. Logistic regression models provide evidence that Taser use is influenced by suspect resistance as well as the race and gender of the suspect involved. Implications for policy and research are discussed.
**Only cite the article above
Same writing structure as previously attached below
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Article Summary
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Article Summary
Article Citation
Legewie, J. (2016). Racial profiling and use of force in police stops: How local events trigger
periods of increased discrimination. American Journal of Sociology, 122(2), 379–424.
Summary
Purpose
The article investigates the relationship between local events, racial discrimination, and
the application of force in police stops. The article evaluates how specific events, such as
shootings or attacks against police officers, influence police behavior and potentially lead to
increased racial discrimination during pedestrian stops (Legewie, 2016, p.380).
Setting and Population
The study is situated in the context of New York City. The choice of this setting is
significant due to the city’s intricate socio-demographic composition, a history of contentious
police practices, and the implementation of stop-and-frisk policies, which led to public debates
and legal challenges (Legewie, 2016, p.388). The population of interest encompasses individuals
who experienced police stops within New York City from 2007 to 2012. This diverse group
includes individuals of various racial backgrounds, such as Black, Hispanic, and White.
Data Collection and Analysis
The data collection process centered around using 3.9 million time-stamped and
geographically tagged pedestrian stops conducted within the Stop, Question, and Frisk (SQF)
program (Ligeia, 2016, p.380). This program allows police officers to stop and question
individuals they reasonably suspect of committing, having committed, or attempting to commit a
Penal Law misdemeanor ((Legewie, 2016, p.388). The primary data source for the study was
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records attained from the “Stop, Question and Frisk Report Worksheet” (UF-250 form) provided
by the New York Police Department (NYPD) (Legewie, 2016, p.388). These records presented
details on each police stop, encompassing critical details such as the date and time of the stop,
the geographical location, and the demographic characteristics of individuals subjected to the
stops. Demographics included race, age, and gender, and the records also indicated whether force
was used during these stops.
The researchers employed a matching technique to create the alternative trend necessary
for their analysis (Legewie, 2016, p.391). This procedure divided the data into two groups: the
treatment group, which encompassed all observations within the two weeks following these
events, and the control group, comprised of observations from a specified time interval preceding
the events. Precinct and race were matched exactly, employing nearest-neighbor matching with
the possibility of replacement and relying on the Mahalanobis distance for other variables such
as stop location, time of day, and individual characteristics (Legewie, 2016, p.391).
Subsequently, the data underwent comprehensive analysis involving logistic regression models
and nonparametric techniques. The logistic regression models were utilized to assess the
influence of these incidents on the application of force in police stops. Generalized additive
models were employed to investigate the temporal dimension of these effects in greater detail.
The nonparametric models utilized the timing of the police stops to predict the likelihood of a
stop involving the application of force, with distinct models for the treatment and control groups.
Findings
The research findings indicate an imperative relationship between local incidents and the
use of force during police stops, emphasizing racial profiling. When examining the impacts of
events involving African-American suspects on police stops, the study revealed a significant
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increase in the application of force in the three days following these events. This effect was most
pronounced in the case of shootings by black suspects, with the July 2007 shooting leading to a
particularly notable increase in the application of force against black individuals ((Legewie,
2016, p.399).
However, this effect was not uniform across all racial groups. Incidents involving nonblack suspects, such as murders, did not significantly alter the use of force against black
individuals (Legewie, 2016, p.399). This nuanced variation in the response to different events
indicates the complex factors driving racial discrimination and unnecessary use of force by law
enforcers. The study’s results emphasize the significance of localized events in shaping police
behavior, leading to periods of heightened discrimination.
Implication
These findings have critical implications for understanding and addressing racial
profiling and law enforcement’s excessive use of force. They highlight localised incidents’
influence and immediate aftermath in driving disparities in police stops. By demonstrating the
direct influence of local events, particularly those entailing black suspects, on the use of force
against black individuals during pedestrian stops, the research underscores the need for ongoing
reform and sensitivity training within police departments. It emphasizes the urgency of
addressing implicit biases and the potential consequences of immediate reactions to high-profile
events. Moreover, the evidence presented highlights the necessity for more effective strategies to
eliminate racial policing and the disproportionate use of force in police stops. It amplifies the
urgency of implementing policies and training programs to reduce these disparities.
The article’s strengths lie in its innovative approach to examining racial profiling by
connecting it to localized events, which allows for a more nuanced understanding of the
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phenomenon. It also addresses the issue of temporality, revealing the short-term impact of these
events on police behavior. The use of matched stops, counterfactual trends, and a placebo test
enhances the credibility of the research. Additionally, the study’s focus on temporal trends within
the three days following events adds depth to our understanding of the timing of increased
discrimination (Legewie, 2016, p.380). However, one primary weakness of the study is its
reliance on logistic regression models and nonparametric approaches, which may have their own
biases. The researchers could have enhanced the findings by conducting interviews with law
enforcers to evaluate the motivations and thought processes behind the observed trends.
Similarly, the article’s focus on New York City may restrict the generalizability of the findings to
other locations. Moreover, the study does not investigate the underlying mechanisms fostering
the observed outcomes. Further research could examine the psychological and organizational
factors such as police training, police-community relations, and institutional biases contributing
to the increased use of force in response to these circumstances.
Recommendation
Future research should consider several components to expand on the results and
contribute to an in-depth comprehension of the use of force and racial discrimination in law
enforcement. Firstly, future research should examine the systemic factors contributing to racial
profiling, including police training, department policies, and community engagement. As
highlighted in this research, how these elements interact with localized events could provide a
broader perspective. Furthermore, studies should investigate the long-term effects of localized
events triggering increased discrimination. Understanding whether the impact persists beyond
the immediate aftermath of these events would provide insights into the lasting consequences of
such incidents. Additionally, research could compare the effectiveness of different interventions
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and strategies in reducing racial disparities in law enforcement encounters, ultimately
contributing to more equitable and just policing practices. Also, to broaden the perspective,
studies could include cross-country comparisons. Examining how different nations address racial
discrimination and excessive use of force would offer insights into the role of cultural, legal, and
historical factors in shaping law enforcement practices.
References
Legewie, J. (2016). Racial profiling and use of force in police stops: How local events trigger
periods of increased discrimination. American Journal of Sociology, 122(2), 379–424.
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