Description
Q1: Illustrate an example of your choice and discuss consumer surplus, producer surplus, Total surplus, and deadweight loss with the help of the graphs.[2.5 Marks] Q2: Calculate the consumer surplus, producer surplus, and total surplus in a market of airplane tickets if the Equilibrium price per ticket is SAR 160, the equilibrium Quantity is 80 tickets, the upper intercept of the demand curve on the y-axis is SAR 400 and lower intercept of the supply curve on the y-axis is zero. What will be the dead weight loss if the government imposes a tax of SAR 80 per ticket and the buyer and sellers share the tax of 50 percent each? [2.5 Marks] Q3: What do you mean by import tariff and import quota? Take an example and discuss the difference between tariffs and quotas with the help of graphs. [2.5 Marks] Q4: Provide the equation to calculate the GDP of a nation. Explain all four factors that contribute to the GDP calculation in detail. [2.5 Marks]
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N. Gregory Mankiw
Principles of
Macroeconomics
Sixth Edition
1
Ten Principles of
Economics
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password -protected website for classroom use.
Premium
PowerPoint
Slides by
Ron Cronovich
In this chapter,
look for the answers to these questions:
• What kinds of questions does economics
address?
• What are the principles of how people make
decisions?
• What are the principles of how people interact?
• What are the principles of how the economy as
a whole works?
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password -protected website for classroom use.
What Economics Is All About
▪ Scarcity: the limited nature of society’s resources
▪
الطبيعة المحدودة لموارد المجتمع:الندرة
▪
Economics: the study of how society manages its scarce resources, e.g.
▪ how people decide what to buy,
how much to work, save, and spend
▪ how firms decide how much to produce,
how many workers to hire
▪ how society decides how to divide its resources between national
defense, consumer goods, protecting the environment, and other needs
▪ ، على سبيل المثال، دراسة كيفية إدارة المجتمع للموارده النادرة:االقتصاد
▪ واإلنفاق، واالدخار، وكم مدة العمل، كيف يقرر الناس ما يشترونه
▪ وكم عدد العمال للتوظيف،كيف تقرر الشركات كمية االنتاج
▪ كيف يقرر المجتمع كيفية تقسيم موارده بين الدفاع الوطني والسلع االستهالكية وحماية البيئة وغيرها
من االحتياجات
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password -protected website for classroom use.
The principles of
HOW PEOPLE
MAKE DECISIONS
مبادئ كيف يتخذ
الناس القرارات
PRINCIPLE #1:
People Face Tradeoffs يواجه الناس المبادالت التجاريه
All decisions involve tradeoffs. Examples:
▪
Going to a party the night before your midterm leaves less time for studying.
▪
Having more money to buy stuff requires working longer hours, which
leaves less time
for leisure.
▪
Protecting the environment requires resources
that could otherwise be used to produce
consumer goods.
▪
▪
: أمثلة.جميع القرارات تنطوي على المبادالت
.الذهاب إلى حفلة في الليلة التي تسبق فترة منتصف مدة دراستك
. مما يترك وقتًا أقل لقضاء وقت الفراغ، يتطلب الحصول على المزيد من المال لشراء المواد ساعات أطول
▪
▪
.تتطلب حماية البيئة موارد يمكن استخدامها إلنتاج سلع استهالكية
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PRINCIPLE #1:
People Face Tradeoffs
▪ Society faces an important tradeoff :
▪ المجتمع يواجه مبادله تجاريه مهمة
efficiency vs. equality
▪
Efficiency: when society gets the most from its scarce resources
▪
Equality: when prosperity is distributed uniformly among society’s
members
▪
Tradeoff: To achieve greater equality,
could redistribute income from wealthy to poor.
But this reduces incentive to work and produce, shrinks the size of the
economic “pie.”
▪
▪
▪
عندما يستفيد المجتمع أكثر من موارده الشحيحة:الكفاءة
عندما يتم توزيع الرخاء بشكل موحد بين أعضاء المجتمع:المساواة
لكن هذا يقلل من الحافز. يمكن إعادة توزيع الدخل من األثرياء إلى الفقراء، لتحقيق قدر أكبر من المساواة:المقايضة
. ويقلص حجم “الكعكة” االقتصادية، للعمل واإلنتاج
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PRINCIPLE #2:
The Cost of Something Is What You Give Up to Get It
تكلفة شيء ما ما يمكنك التخلي عنه
▪ Making decisions requires comparing the costs and benefits of
alternative choices.
▪ مهمThe opportunity cost of any item is whatever must be given up
to obtain it.
▪ It is the relevant cost for decision making.
▪ .يتطلب اتخاذ القرارات مقارنة تكاليف وفوائد الخيارات البديلة
▪ .تكلفة الفرصة البديلة ألي عنصر هي ما يجب التخلي عنه عليه للحصول عليه
▪ إنها التكلفة ذات الصلة التخاذ القرار
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password -protected website for classroom use.
PRINCIPLE #2:
The Cost of Something Is
What You Give Up to Get It
Examples:
The opportunity cost of…
…going to college for a year is not just the tuition, books, and fees, but also
the foregone wages.
…seeing a movie is not just the price of the ticket,
but the value of the time you spend in the theater .
… تكلفة الفرصة البديلة
ولكن أيضا األجور، والرسوم، والكتب، الذهاب إلى الكلية لمدة عام ليس فقط الرسوم الدراسية…
.الضائعة
بل قيمة الوقت الذي تقضيه في المسرح، رؤية فيلم ليس مجرد سعر التذكرة…
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permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password -protected website for classroom use.
PRINCIPLE #3:
Rational People Think at the Margin
العقالء يفكرون في الهامش
Rational people
▪ systematically and purposefully do the best they can to
achieve their objectives.
▪ make decisions by evaluating costs and benefits of
marginal changes, incremental adjustments to an
existing plan.
▪ شخاص عقالنيين
▪ .بشكل منهجي وعادل القيام بأفضل ما في وسعهم لتحقيق أهدافهم
▪
والتعديالت، اتخاذ القرارات من خالل تقييم تكاليف وفوائد التغييرات الهامشية
.اإلضافية لخطة موجودة
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PRINCIPLE #3:
Rational People Think at the Margin
Examples:
▪ When a student considers whether to go to college for an additional
year, he compares the fees & foregone wages to the extra income
he could earn with the extra year of education.
▪ When a manager considers whether to increase output, she
compares the cost of the needed labor and materials to the extra
revenue.
▪ :أمثلة
▪
فإنه يقارن الرسوم واألجور، عندما يدرس الطالب ما إذا كان سيذهب إلى الكلية لمدة عام إضافي
.الضائعة بالدخل اإلضافي الذي يمكن أن يكسبه مع السنة اإلضافية للتعليم
▪
فإنها تقارن تكلفة العمالة والمواد المطلوبة، عندما يدرس المدير ما إذا كان سيتم زيادة اإلنتاج
.باإليرادات اإلضافية
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password -protected website for classroom use.
PRINCIPLE #4:
People Respond to Incentives الناس يستجيبون
للحوافز
▪ Incentive: something that induces a person to act, i.e.
the prospect of a reward or punishment .
▪ أي احتمال المكافأة أو العقوبة، شيء يحرض الشخص على التصرف:الحافز
▪
Rational people respond to incentives.
Examples:
▪
When gas prices rise, consumers buy more hybrid cars and fewer gas guzzling
SUVs.
▪
When cigarette taxes increase,
teen smoking falls.
▪
.يستجيب العقالنيون للحوافز
▪
▪
:أمثلة
يشتري المستهلكون المزيد من السيارات الهجينة وعدد أقل من سيارات الدفع الرباعي، عندما ترتفع أسعار الغاز
.التي تستهلك كميات كبيرة من الغاز
▪
. ينخفض التدخين في سن المراهقة، عندما تزيد الضرائب على السجائر
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password -protected website for classroom use.
ACTIVE LEARNING
1
Applying the principles
You are selling your 1996 Mustang. You have already spent $1000 on repairs.
At the last minute, the transmission dies. You can pay $600 to have it repaired, or sell the
car “as is.”
In each of the following scenarios, should you have the transmission repaired? Explain.
. دوالر على اإلصالحات1000 لقد أنفقت بالفعل. 1996 انت بعت موستانج الخاص بك عام
.” أو بيع السيارة “كما هي، دوالر إلصالحها600 يمكنك دفع. يتعطل اإلرسال، في الدقيقة األخيرة
. هل يجب أن يتم إصالح ناقل الحركة؟ اشرح، في كل من السيناريوهات التالية
A.
Blue book value (what you could get for the car) is $6500 if transmission works,
$5700 if it doesn’t
B.
Blue book value is $6000 if transmission works,
$5500 if it doesn’t
دوالر إذا لم5700 ، دوالر إذا كان الناقل يعمل6500 القيمة الدفترية الزرقاء (ما يمكن أن تحصل عليه للسيارة) هي.أ
يكن كذلك
دوالر أمريكي إذا لم يكن كذلك5500 ، دوالر إذا كان اإلرسال يعمل6000 قيمة الكتاب األزرق هي
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ACTIVE LEARNING
Answers
1
Cost of fixing transmission = $600
A.
Blue book value is $6500 if transmission works,
$5700 if it doesn’t
Benefit of fixing the transmission = $800
($6500 – 5700).
It’s worthwhile to have the transmission fixed.
دوالر600 = تكلفة تثبيت الناقل
دوالر إذا لم يكن يعمل5700 ، دوالر إذا كان يعمل اإلرسال6500 قاليمة الدفترية الزرقاء هي
.) دوالر5700 – 6500( دوالر800 =فائدة ثبات الناقل
.من الجدير بنا أن يكون النقل ثابتًا
B.
Blue book value is $6000 if transmission works,
$5500 if it doesn’t
Benefit of fixing the transmission is only $500.
Paying $600 to fix transmission is not worthwhile
.
دوالر إذا لم يكن يعمل5500 ، دوالر إذا كان الناقل يعمل6000 القيمة الدفترية الزرقاء هي
. دوالر فقط500 تبلغ فائدة إصالح اإلرسال
دوالر إلصالح الناقل ليست جديرة باالهتمام600 دفع
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except
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use. use.
ACTIVE LEARNING
1
Observations
▪ The $1000 you previously spent on repairs is irrelevant.
What matters is the cost and benefit
of the marginal repair (the transmission).
▪ The change in incentives from scenario A
to scenario B caused your decision to change.
▪ . دوالر الذي أنفقته سابقًا على اإلصالحات غير ذي صلة1000 مبلغ
.)ما يهم هو التكلفة واالستفادة من اإلصالح الهامشي (اإلرسال
▪ تسبب التغيير في الحوافز من السيناريو أ إلى السيناريو ب في تغيير
قرارك
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except
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or or
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otherwise
or otherwise
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use. use.
The principles of
HOW PEOPLE
INTERACT
مبادئ كيف تتفاعل
الناس
PRINCIPLE #5:
Trade Can Make Everyone Better Off
التجارة يمكن أن تجعل الجميع أفضل حاال
▪ Rather than being self-sufficient,
people can specialize in producing one good or service
and exchange it for other goods.
▪
▪
▪
يمكن للناس أن يتخصصوا في إنتاج سلعة أو خدمة واحدة ويتبادلونها، وبدالً من االكتفاء الذاتي
.من أجل سلع أخرى
Countries also benefit from trade and specialization:
▪ Get a better price abroad for goods they produce
▪ Buy other goods more cheaply from abroad than could be produced at
home
▪ :ضا من التجارة والتخصص
ً تستفيد البلدان أي
▪ الحصول على سعر أفضل في الخارج للبضائع التي تنتجها
▪ شراء السلع األخرى بسعر أرخص من الخارج مما يمكن إنتاجه في المنزل
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
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PRINCIPLE #6:
Markets Are Usually A Good Way to Organize Economic Activity
األسواق عادة ما تكون وسيلة جيدة لتنظيم النشاط االقتصادي
▪ Market: a group of buyers and sellers (need not be in a
single location)
▪ ) مجموعة من المشترين والبائعين ( ال يجب أن يكونوا في مكان واحد:السوق
▪ “Organize economic activity” means determining
▪ what goods to produce
▪ how to produce them
▪ how much of each to produce
▪ who gets them
▪ تنظيم النشاط االقتصادي “يعني تحديد
▪ ما هي السلع التي ننتجها
▪ كيفية إنتاجها
▪ كم عدد كل واحد النتاجه
▪ من يحصل عليهم
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permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password -protected website for classroom use.
PRINCIPLE #6:
Markets Are Usually A Good Way to Organize Economic Activity
▪ A market economy allocates resources through the decentralized
decisions of many households and firms as they interact in markets .
▪
يخصص اقتصاد السوق الموارد من خالل القرارات الالمركزية للعديد من األسر والشركات عندما تتفاعل
في األسواق
▪ Famous insight by Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations (1776):
Each of these households and firms acts as if “led by an
invisible hand” to promote general economic well-being.
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PRINCIPLE #6:
Markets Are Usually A Good Way to Organize
Economic Activity
▪
The invisible hand works through the price system:
▪ The interaction of buyers and sellers
determines prices.
▪ Each price reflects the good’s value to buyers and the cost of producing
the good.
▪ Prices guide self-interested households and firms to make decisions
that, in many cases, maximize society’s economic well-being.
▪ :تعمل اليد الخفية من خالل نظام األسعار
▪
تفاعل البائعين والمشترين يحدد األسعار
▪ .يعكس كل سعر قيمة السلعة بالنسبة للمشترين وتكلفة إنتاج السلعة
▪
وتوجه األسعار باألسر والشركات المهتمة ذاتيا التخاذ قرارات تزيد في كثير من الحاالت من رفاه
.المجتمع االقتصادي
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
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PRINCIPLE #7:
Governments Can Sometimes Improve Market Outcomes
يمكن للحكومات في بعض األحيان تحسين نتائج السوق
▪ Important role for govt: enforce property rights
(with police, courts)
▪ People are less inclined to work, produce, invest, or purchase if
large risk of their property being stolen.
▪ ) إنفاذ حقوق الملكية (مع الشرطة والمحاكم:دور هام للحكومة
▪
الناس أقل ميالً إلى العمل أو اإلنتاج أو االستثمار أو الشراء إذا كان هناك خطر كبير من سرقة
.ممتلكاتهم
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PRINCIPLE #7:
Governments Can Sometimes Improve Market
Outcomes
مهم
▪ Market failure: when the market fails to allocate society’s resources
efficiently
▪ عندما يفشل السوق في تخصيص موارد المجتمع بكفاءة:فشل السوق
▪ Causes of market failure:
▪ Externalities, when the production or consumption
of a good affects bystanders (e.g. pollution)
▪ Market power, a single buyer or seller has substantial influence on
market price
(e.g. monopoly)
▪ :أسباب فشل السوق
▪ ) عندما يؤثر إنتاج أو استهالك السلعة على المارة (مثل التلوث، العوامل الخارجية
▪ ) المشتري أو البائع الواحد له تأثير كبير على سعر السوق ( على سبيل المثال االحتكار، قوة السوق
▪ Public policy may promote efficiency..السياسة العامة قد تعزز الكفاءة
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permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password -protected website for classroom use.
PRINCIPLE #7:
Governments Can Sometimes
Improve Market Outcomes
▪ Govt may alter market outcome to promote equity.
▪ قد تغير الحكومة من نتائج السوق لتعزيز العدالة
▪ If the market’s distribution of economic well-being is not desirable, tax
or welfare policies can change how the economic “pie” is divided.
▪
فإن السياسات الضريبية أو االجتماعية، إذا لم يكن توزيع السوق للرفاه االقتصادي مرغوبا فيه
يمكن أن تغير كيفية تقسيم “الكعكة” االقتصادية
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ACTIVE LEARNING
2
Discussion Question
In each of the following situations, what is the
government’s role? Does the government’s
intervention improve the outcome?
a. Public schools for K-12
b. Workplace safety regulations
c. Public highways
d. Patent laws, which allow drug companies to
charge high prices for life-saving drugs
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use. use.
The principles of
HOW THE
ECONOMY
AS A WHOLE
WORKS
مبادئ االقتصاد
كأعمال كاملة
PRINCIPLE #8:
A Country’s Standard of Living Depends on Its Ability to Produce
Goods & Services
يعتمد مستوى المعيشة للبلد على قدرته على إنتاج السلع والخدمات
▪ Huge variation in living standards across countries and
over time:
▪
:اختالف كبير في مستويات المعيشة عبر البلدان وعبر الزمن
▪ Average income in rich countries is more than ten times average
income in poor countries.
▪ The U.S. standard of living today is about
eight times larger than 100 years ago.
▪ .متوسط الدخل في البلدان الغنية هو أكثر من عشرة أضعاف متوسط الدخل في البلدان الفقيرة
▪ . عام100 يبلغ مستوى المعيشة في الواليات المتحدة اليوم ثمانية أضعاف ما كان عليه قبل
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PRINCIPLE #8:
A Country’s Standard of Living Depends on Its Ability to Produce
Goods & Services
▪ The most important determinant of living standards: productivity,
the amount of goods and services produced per unit of labor.
▪ وكمية السلع والخدمات المنتجة لكل وحدة من، اإلنتاجية:أهم العوامل المحددة لمستويات المعيشة
.العمالة
▪ Productivity depends on the equipment, skills, and technology
available to workers.
▪ .تعتمد اإلنتاجية على المعدات والمهارات والتكنولوجيا المتاحة للعمال
▪ Other factors (e.g., labor unions, competition from abroad) have far
less impact on living standards .
▪
المنافسة من الخارج) لها تأثير أقل بكثير على مستويات، هناك عوامل أخرى ( مثل النقابات العمالية
المعيشة
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PRINCIPLE #9:
Prices Rise When the Government Prints Too Much
Money
ترتفع األسعار عندما تطبع الحكومة الكثير من المال
▪ Inflation: increases in the general level of prices.
▪ . الزيادات في المستوى العام لألسعار:التضخم
▪ In the long run, inflation is almost always caused by excessive growth
in the quantity of money, which causes the value of money to fall.
▪
مما يؤدي إلى، غالبا ً ما يحدث التضخم بسبب النمو المفرط في كمية المال، على المدى الطويل
.انخفاض قيمة المال
▪ The faster the govt creates money, the greater the inflation rate.
▪ . زاد معدل التضخم، كلما زادت الحكومة من توليد المال
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PRINCIPLE #10:
Society Faces a Short-run Tradeoff Between Inflation and
Unemployment
المجتمع يواجه صفقة قصيرة المدى بين التضخم والبطالة
▪ In the short-run (1–2 years),
many economic policies push inflation and unemployment
in opposite directions.
▪
▪
تدفع العديد من السياسات االقتصادية التضخم والبطالة في اتجاهين، ) سنة2- 1( في المدى القصير
.متعاكسين
▪ Other factors can make this tradeoff more or less
favorable, but the tradeoff is always present.
▪
لكن المقايضة موجودة، عوامل أخرى يمكن أن تجعل هذه المبادله التجاريه أكثر أو أقل مواتية
.ً دائما
▪
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FYI: How to Read Your Textbook
1. Read before class.
You’ll get more out of class.
2. Summarize, don’t highlight.
Highlighting is a passive activity that won’t
improve your comprehension or retention.
Instead, summarize each section in your own
words. Then, compare your summary to the one
at the end of the chapter.
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FYI: How to Read Your Textbook
3. Test yourself.
Try the “Quick Quiz” that follows each section
before moving on to the next section.
Write your answers down, compare them to the
answers in the back of the book. If your answers
are incorrect, review the section before moving on.
4. Practice, practice, practice.
Work through the end-of-chapter review questions
and problems. They are often good practice for
the exams. And the more you use your new
knowledge, the more solid it will become.
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permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password -protected website for classroom use.
FYI: How to Read Your Textbook
5. Go online.
The book comes with excellent web resources,
including practice quizzes, tools to strengthen
your graphing skills, helpful video clips, and other
resources to help you learn the textbook material
more easily and effectively. Visit:
http://academic.cengage.com/economics/mankiw
6. Study in groups.
Get together with a few classmates to review each
chapter, quiz each other, and help each other
understand the material.
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FYI: How to Read Your Textbook
7. Teach someone.
The best way to learn something is to teach it to
someone else, such as a study partner or friend.
8. Don’t skip the real world examples.
Read the Case Studies and “In The News” boxes
in each chapter. They will help you see how the
new terms, concepts, models, and graphs apply to
the real world. As you read the newspaper or
watch the evening news, see if you can find the
connections with what you’re learning in the
textbook.
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SUMMARY
The principles of decision making are:
• People face tradeoffs.
• The cost of any action is measured in terms of foregone
opportunities.
• Rational people make decisions by comparing marginal costs and
marginal benefits.
• People respond to incentives.
• :مبادئ صنع القرار هي
• .يواجه الناس المبادالت التجاريه
• .يتم قياس تكلفة أي إجراء من حيث الفرص الضائعة
• .العقالنيون يتخذون القرارات من خالل مقارنة التكاليف الهامشية والفوائد الهامشية
• .الناس يستجيبون للحوافز
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SUMMARY
The principles of interactions among people are:
• Trade can be mutually beneficial.
• Markets are usually a good way of coordinating trade.
• Govt can potentially improve market outcomes if there is a market
failure or if the market outcome is inequitable.
• :مبادئ التفاعل بين الناس هي
• .يمكن أن تكون التجارة مفيدة للطرفين
• .األسواق هي عادة طريقة جيدة لتنسيق التجارة
• يمكن للحكومة أن تح ّسن نتائج السوق إذا كان هناك فشل في السوق أو إذا كانت نتيجة السوق غير
منصفة
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May notMay
be copied,
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scanned,scanned,
or duplicated,
or duplicated,
in wholeinorwhole
in part,
or in
except
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except
use as
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or service
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SUMMARY
The principles of the economy as a whole are:
• Productivity is the ultimate source of living standards.
• Money growth is the ultimate source of inflation.
• Society faces a short-run tradeoff between inflation and
unemployment.
• :مبادئ االقتصاد ككل هي
• .اإلنتاجية هي المصدر النهائي لمستويات المعيشة
• .نمو المال هو المصدر النهائي للتضخم
• .المجتمع يواجه مقايضة قصيرة المدى بين التضخم والبطالة
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except
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N. Gregory Mankiw
Principles of
Macroeconomics
Sixth Edition
1
Ten Principles of
Economics
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Premium
PowerPoint
Slides by
Ron Cronovich
In this chapter,
look for the answers to these questions:
• What are economists’ two roles? How do they differ?
• What are models? How do economists use them?
• What are the elements of the Circular-Flow Diagram?
What concepts does the diagram illustrate?
• How is the Production Possibilities Frontier related
to opportunity cost? What other concepts does it
illustrate?
• What is the difference between microeconomics and
macroeconomics? Between positive and normative?
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The Economist as Scientist الخبير االقتصادي كعالم
▪ Economists play two roles:
1. Scientists: try to explain the world
2. Policy advisors: try to improve it
▪ In the first, economists employ the
scientific method,
the dispassionate development and testing of theories about how
the world works.
▪ :يلعب االقتصاديون دورين
▪ حاول أن تشرح العالم: العلماء. 1
▪ حاول تحسينه: مستشارو السياسة. 2
▪
وتنمية واختبار النظريات حول كيفية، يستخدم االقتصاديون المنهج العلمي، في المقام األول
عمل العالم
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permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password -protected website for classroom use.
Assumptions & Models االفتراضات والنماذج
▪
Assumptions simplify the complex world,
make it easier to understand.
▪
Example: To study international trade,
assume two countries and two goods.
Unrealistic, but simple to learn and
gives useful insights about the real world.
. وتسهل فهمه، االفتراضات تبسط العالم المعقد
. افترض دولتين وسلعتين، لدراسة التجارة الدولية:مثال
ولكنها بسيطة للتعلم وتعطي رؤى مفيدة حول العالم الحقيقي، غير واقعية
▪
Model: a highly simplified representation of a more complicated reality.
Economists use models to study economic issues.
▪
. يستخدم االقتصاديون نماذج لدراسة القضايا االقتصادية. تمثيل مبسط للغاية لواقع أكثر تعقيدًا:النموذج
▪
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Some Familiar Models
بعض النماذج المألوفة
A road map
خارطة الطريق
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permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password -protected website for classroom use.
Some Familiar Models
A model of human
anatomy from high
school biology class
نموذج من التشريح البشري من فئة
البيولوجيا في المدرسة الثانوية
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permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password -protected website for classroom use.
Some Familiar Models
A model airplane
نموذج الطائره
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permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password -protected website for classroom use.
Some Familiar Models
The model teeth at the
dentist’s office
نموذج األسنان في مكتب طبيب
األسنان
Don’t forget
to floss!
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permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password -protected website for classroom use.
Our First Model:
The Circular-Flow Diagram
مخطط التدفق الدائري:نموذجنا األول
▪ The Circular-Flow Diagram: a visual model of the economy,
shows how dollars flow through markets among households and
firms
▪ يبين كيف تتدفق الدوالرات عبر األسواق بين األسر، نموذج مرئي لالقتصاد:مخطط ال
