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diversity in American politics
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POLS512 WK1 Discussion
Topic: According to this week’s readings, what is the meaning of the concept of “diversity”?
How does the concept of diversity inform our understanding of knowledge and American
political life?
Student #1 (TM) Post:
PART 1
Good evening, Professor and fellow classmates. I am TM, and I am currently serving in the
United States Navy as a Master at Arms and my rank is Petty Officer First Class. I received my
Bachelor of Arts in Political Science from St. Ambrose University in Davenport, Iowa back in
1999. I spent my time in between 1999 and to the present being a paralegal from a law firm in
Chicago for a few years then switching careers. I chose law enforcement and was a police officer
for 10 years. I come from a military family as my father spent 21 years in the Army, so I also
took that route. I joined the United States Naval Reserves and did a deployment to Bahrain
which is a tiny country in between Iran and Saudi Arabia. I enjoyed my time and knew I was not
going anywhere in my police department because I was not a “yes man” so I decided to go active
duty in the Navy.
Here I am six years later in active-duty status and enjoying leading my Junior Sailors and also
pursuing my master’s in political science with my concentration being International Relations. I
am still on my core requirements with this course being my last. I’ve enjoyed a few of my classes
so far and have learned a lot from all of them. I am really looking forward to this course and the
discussions to be had between my classmates and myself. I consider myself an open-minded
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person which will be particularly important to be successful not only for this course, this degree,
but in life and in my career.
Thank you everyone and good luck with this course and the rest of your endeavors.
PART 2
The concept of diversity is defined as “demographic differences within the American population”
and it has become such an important topic/discussion in American politics. In the article by
Aleshire, Ilene titled, “The need for diversity: Governments should reflect their people”, she
discusses the organization Emerge Oregon which claims to concentrate their efforts on training
Democratic women, Latinos, African Americans, etc. so the individuals running for office more
clearly reflects the population they are voted to represent. According to Aleshire, “People with
differing backgrounds and experiences bring those resources to the job of governing, resulting in
a better outcome for all.”
The Census Bureau released its 2020 census results in September of 2023 and there were a lot of
firsts which only proves the ongoing diversity shift in the United States. Some of the notable
firsts were: Colombian and Honduran populations reaching one million and the MENA response
or Middle Eastern North African being included, and previous census data focused on the
Hispanic or Latino population and the major race groups of White, Black or African American,
Asian etc. while this census broke it up into 200 race and ethnic groups such as German,
Lebanese, Jamaican, Chinese, Native Hawaiian, Mexican, and American Indian. Rachel Marks,
chief of the Census Bureau’s Racial Statistics Branch stated, “These 2020 Census data illuminate
the rich diversity across our nation.”
Understanding diversity will only lead us to understanding the new American political life
because as the lessons state, “no majority” America is here. The white population will be on a
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steady decline by 2025 so we must face the music and as the demographer William H. Frey
states, “Guarding the welfare of today’s diverse young families is in everyone’s interest-so all of
us can prosper.”
References:
Aleshire, Ilene. 2018. “The need for diversity: Governments should reflect their people.” The
Register – Guard, Jan
26. http://ezproxy.apus.edu/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fnewspapers%
2Fneed-diversity%2Fdocview%2F1991442701%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D8289.
Vidal, Stacey Gimbel. 2023. “Census Bureau Releases 2020 Census Data for Nearly 1, 500
Detailed Race and Ethnicity Groups, Tribes and Villages”. Census.gov, September 21,
2023. www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2023/2020-census-detailed-dhc-file-a.html.
Student #2 (SC) Post:
Part I
Hi classmates,
My name is SC. I am originally from Kemmerer Wyoming, but I now live in Thermopolis
Wyoming. In 2015 I received my undergraduate degree from Rocky Mountain College (Billings
Montana) in social studies broadfield education. Shortly thereafter, I took a teaching job in
Thermopolis Wyoming and I have been here ever since. I recently taught 7th and 8th grade
social studies, but I am now teaching US History and Government for juniors and seniors. I
started my graduate program a few years ago. Our school district has a really cool policy that
allows a teacher to work to obtain a graduate degree while simultaneously teaching a college
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class through a local community college. I have greatly enjoyed teaching an intro level political
science course to high school kids. I was really nervous to do this at first, but it has become my
most enjoyable class to teach! I am about halfway finished with my graduate courses at AMU. I
have really enjoyed each class that I have taken and I am really looking forward to this one.
Growing up in the Rocky Mountain West has shaped my hobbies and identity. My favorite
activity is fly fishing. I try to spend most of my free time on the water. My father and I are
currently planning a trip this summer to fish in Alaska. We have been there the previous two
summers and it has been a truly enriching experience. I also coach the varsity basketball team in
Thermopolis. I just wrapped up my sixth season at the helm. It can be trying and challenging, but
I love it and it definitely keeps me busy during the cold winter months! My wife works for the
Wyoming Department of Education. She and I have three children together. We will be
celebrating our two year anniversary this summer.
If anyone has any questions please let me know! I am looking forward to this class and getting to
know everybody. 🙂
Part II
Diversity is defined as the demographic differences within the American population based on
various different factors such as race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation. In essence,
diversity is a large number of people who are “categorically” different from one another, but live
in the same place. The concept of diversity is arguably the most important facet of American
politics. America has always been an incredibly diverse place and will continue to become even
more diverse as it progresses into the 21st century.
Currently, the 118th Congress is the most diverse congress in American history.¹ However, there
has always been a sizable gap in diversity between representatives and their constituents.
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Representation in US congress has historically been homogenous. That is to say Congress has
historically never reflected the demographics of the American population. Much of this can be
attributed to structural factors such as gerrymandering, campaign finance laws, and barriers to
voting. The increased diversity in all levels of government will likely have an overall net positive
impact on American society and politics. Afterall, in a pluralistic society it is important to have
viewpoints from various different groups and that will likely increase political efficacy.²
However, there will always be a political element in America that will not embrace diversity for
a variety of different reasons. At its most basic level, a diverse society and population is much
more difficult to govern than a homogenous society. In America there are countless perspectives
to consider and varying groups frequently have different goals for what they would like their
government to accomplish. One would naturally assume that this would lead to compromises in
the political arena. However, it may be having an adverse effect on American politics as political
polarization has drastically increased in the last several decades.³ That is not to say diversity is
responsible for political polarization, but it could be viewed as a potential factor.
Overall, America will continue to adjust to a changing population. While tempers may flare at
times, the majority will continue to move forward in cohesion. Political leaders that can unify
instead of divide will be at a premium moving forward.
Thanks,
1. “The changing face of Congress in 8 Charts,” Pew Research Center, accessed March 5,
2024, https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/02/07/the-changing-face-ofcongress/
2. Ilene Aleshire, “The need for diversity: Governments should reflect the will of their
people,” The Register – Guard, January 26,
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2018, https://www.proquest.com/docview/1991442701/fulltext/E5A024A62708492CPQ/
1?accountid=8289&sourcetype=Newspapers
3. Michael Jonas, “The downside of diversity,” The Boston Globe, August 5,
2007, https://archive.boston.com/news/globe/ideas/articles/2007/08/05/the_downside_of_
diversity/
Student #3 (BG) Post:
Hello everyone!!! I am BG and I live in Bardstown, Kentucky, officially the prettiest Small
Town in America and the Bourbon Capital of the World. I am a Federal employee at Fort Knox,
KY, where I am an IT Product Line Manager for the U.S. Army Human Resources Command. I
have been an online student since 2019 when I completed my Bachelor’s degree in Political
Science at Excelsior University. I am married, having just celebrated my 32nd anniversary with
my wife M, and have one child, Lucas, who is a student at APU. I am attending AMU to pursue
my Master’s in Political Science, with an eye toward teaching the subject in community colleges
when I retire from government service in 2025.
I think everyone’s background and experiences define diversity. However, most people would
define it closely; the differences between people that come from the dimensions of race,
ethnicity, age, religious beliefs, gender, and political beliefs. Many of the characteristics that we
are made up of build into our persona that we share with the world. Physical ones like gender,
race, ethnicity and age give us perspectives from which we form political opinions. Others that
are less tangible, such as religious beliefs, educational background, and political upbringing,
provide context to the opinions that we hold.
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I, as a straight, white male in his mid 50s from a Christian, conservative background, sees the
political spectrum far differently than a bisexual, Hispanic female who grew up as an atheist in a
liberal household. And although a Pew Research study seems to indicate otherwise, my belief is
that all voices should be heard and diverse characteristics should be taken into account regarding
political beliefs or workplace hiring decisions (Horowitz, 2019).
It is often uncomfortable for people to be outward with their perspectives of others around
them. People often focus on the differences between us, be it one of the characteristics listed
above or others like physical disabilities or veteran status. But, as presented in Michael Jonas’
article, it is precisely those differences that allow us to come at problems from different
directions and come up with solutions that people who are less diverse might never see (Jonas,
2017). Finding a solution to affordable housing may take a team of vastly different people from
all points of the political spectrum
Ultimately, humans need to realize that someone different isn’t necessarily something to
avoid. Sharing opinions and ideas with people from different backgrounds, ethnicities, or races
can often lead to cooperation and solutions, and not always to conflict.
References
Horowitz, J. M. (2019, May 8). Views on America’s Growing Racial, Ethnic Diversity. Pew
Research Center. Retrieved March 7, 2024, from https://www.pewresearch.org/socialtrends/2019/05/08/americans-see-advantages-and-challenges-in-countrys-growing-racial-andethnic-diversity/
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Jonas, M. (2017, November 9). YouTube: Home. Retrieved March 7, 2024,
from https://archive.boston.com/news/globe/ideas/articles/2007/08/05/the_downside_of_diversit
y/
Research Paper Proposal
Research Paper Guidance
Dear Students,
I want to offer a little guidance on your final research paper. Your paper topic should pertain to a
relevant policy or political issue or process. By relevant I mean two things: (1) contemporary,
and (2) related to a concept or theoretical discussion from this course. On #1, you may take a
historical perspective on an issue if you are able to give it meaning and significance for today.
Please read through the set of instructions to approach your paper, before getting started.
Your paper should be approximately 8-10 pages, double-spaced in Arial font, 12 pitch. Your
citations and references should be in Turabian style format or the citation format consistent with
your field of study.
Research Paper Proposal (Remember, we need only the proposal, not the whole paper).
Instructions
Submit a brief overview of your research topic. This should be no more than one page. Below is some
guidance regarding your research papers.
Dear Students,
I want to offer a little guidance on your final research paper. Your paper topic should pertain to a relevant policy
or political issue or process. By relevant I mean two things: (1) contemporary and (2) related to a concept or
theoretical discussion from this course. On #1, you may take a historical perspective on an issue if you are able to
give it meaning and significance for today.
You might want to approach your paper as follows:
1. Think of a concept or theoretical issue we have discussed in class. Conversely, you may think of a political
issue, policy, or case, and work backward, giving it some conceptual or theoretical grounding.
2. Then, think of a social example of this concept or theory. This example is more than likely associated with
some sort of policy, political, or legal issue in the United States.
3. Your policy issue does not have to be a policy in place. It may be a social or political issue that is in proposal or
discussion. In other words, it may be simply part our national discourse.
4. Paper organization:
Introduction: Introduce your concept/theory. Offer a brief discussion and/or pro/con arguments/positions on this
concept/theory. Then, tell us what your example(s) and policy-related issues.
Thesis statement: Offer your research question, position and/or argument, as well as how you will proceed.
Research findings.
Critical analysis of findings.
Conclusion
Your paper should be approximately 8-10 pages, double-spaced in Arial or Times New Roman font. Your
citations and references should be in Turabian style format.
Research Paper Proposal
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DIVERSITY IN AMERICAN POLITICS READING MATERIALS
Welcome to Diversity in American Politics
This course is a study of diverse groups as political players in society — their history as
outsiders, strategies for gaining political power, the evolution of public policies that affect the
lives and opportunities of these groups mainly in the United States. In this course, students will
explore core political constructs such as governance, policy making, participation, conflict, and
attitudes through the lens of gender, race and ethnicity. The course focuses primarily upon the
experiences of several groups: African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, Arabs, women, and gays
and lesbians. The goal of this course is to provide students with the necessary theoretical and
methodological foundations needed to understand and analyze gender, racial, and ethnic politics
in the United States.
Save Work for Final Capstone or Exam Class
A master’s degree in political science requires the completion of either the POLS697
portfolio capstone (three credit hours) or the POLS698 comprehensive exam (zero credit
hours) plus an elective.
For both options, please keep access to your work and readings as you progress through your
degree. Also keep in mind that when choosing topics of research, those related to the four
program objectives in the political science MA program will be most useful in preparing for your
final class.
1. Apply the basic concepts of government, governance, economy, and civil society to
contemporary political systems.
2. Understand the components of representative democracy and compare those against other
political systems.
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3. Collect the appropriate information and data used to form social, economic, foreign
affairs, and security policy and evaluate their outcomes.
4. Assess the actors and processes involved in policymaking.
Welcome to Diversity in American Politics
Course Scope
While this course is focused on diversity in American politics, the purpose of the course
is to introduce students to the concept of diversity as relational and structural. Our study flows
from one of philosophical and methodological approaches to diversity to a study of diversity and
politics itself. We apply what we have learned about diversity to understanding various groups’
historical and political marginalized position in society. This course adopts a research approach,
employing critical thought and reasoning from various presented theories and debates,
descriptive narratives, and empirical data. It is intended to provide a broad and analytically
coherent conceptual framework to equip each student with constructing their own critique of
diversity and American politics.
WEEK I
Introduction: Diversity and American Politics
Diversity can mean many things to different people. In this course, we define diversity as
the demographic differences within the American population. Using this demographic definition,
this course will focus primarily on the politics of race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation as
these group cleavages have been the most influential in American politics to date.
Having a better understanding of diversity and its role in contemporary American
politics, will allow the student to realize its importance and relevance to modern life in the
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United States. The diversity of the United States population is constantly evolving. For instance,
the year 2007 saw nonwhites become the majority of the population in over 30 percent of the
most populous counties in the United States and in one and ten of the total of over 3,100
counties. Additionally, Latinos surpassed African-Americans as the largest minority group in the
United States according to the 2000 census. Then, according to the 2010 Census, more than half
of the total population growth of the United States between 2000 and 2010 was due to the
increase in the Hispanic population. Changes such as these impact everyone who lives, works,
and functions as an informed citizen of the United States and the world.
In POLS512: Diversity and American Politics, we will examine diverse groups as political
players in society — their history as outsiders, strategies for gaining political power, the evolution
of public policies that affect the lives and opportunities of these groups mainly in the United
States. In this course, students will explore core political constructs such as governance, policy
making, participation, conflict, and attitudes through the lens of gender, race and ethnicity. The
course focuses primarily upon the experiences of several groups: African Americans, Hispanics,
Asians, Arabs, women, and gays and lesbians as well as those who identify as bisexual,
transgender or other. The goal of this course is to provide students with the necessary theoretical
and methodological foundations needed to understand and analyze gender, racial and ethnic
politics in the United States.
Main Points
•
The United States faces enormous problems with minority-dominant relationships. Even
while many historic grievances of minority groups remain unresolved, society is rapidly
becoming more diverse, culturally, linguistically, and racially.
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•
A minority group has five defining characteristics: a pattern of disadvantage,
identification by some visible mark, awareness of its disadvantaged status, a membership
determined at birth, and a tendency to marry within the group.
•
A stratification system has three different dimensions (class, prestige, and power), and the
nature of inequality in a society varies by its level of development. Minority groups and
social class are correlated in numerous and complex ways.
•
Race is a criterion widely used to identify minority group members. As a biological
concept, race has been largely abandoned, but as a social category, race maintains a
powerful influence on the way we think about one another.
•
Minority groups are differentiated internally by social class, age, region of residence, and
many other variables.
•
Four crucial concepts for analyzing dominant-minority relations are prejudice,
discrimination, ideological racism, and institutional discrimination.
In the US, Diversity is the New Majority
A Census Bureau report shows that by 2044, whites will no longer comprise a racial majority in
the United States. By then, the nation — like today’s Los Angeles — will be made up of a
kaleidoscope of racial groups, including Latinos, blacks, Asians, Native Americans and
multiracial Americans.
This “no racial majority” scenario, even three decades away, provokes fear in some white
Americans: fear of change, of losing privileged status or of unwanted people coming into their
communities. But it is a change that should be welcomed.
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The fact is that “no majority” America is here and has been thriving since at least 2015.
According to the new projections, it is here among children younger than 5, and it is here among
all students in the nation’s public schools. It will be here for the nation’s under-30 population in
less than a decade, deepening the transformation that has already come to pockets of many urban
cores and large swaths of the nation’s coasts and the Southwest.
Interracial marriages are at an all-time high, especially among the young and especially in
the most diverse sections of the country. Soon, there will be minority white populations in 12
states, including California (Los Angeles crossed this threshold in 1990), Texas, Florida, New
York, Georgia and New Jersey, according to a States of Change project report.
Fear of a racially diverse nation seems to be greatest in parts of the population and the
country that have yet to experience this change. These include a slew of communities and states
that have recently enacted laws tough on immigrants in the country illegally even though
relatively few immigrants live there, legally or illegally. In the broader population, fear is
greatest among the least-diverse age groups — baby boomers and seniors, many of whom grew
up in an era of low immigration and extreme segregation and interacted less with minority
populations.
A 2011 Pew Research Center survey indicated that older Americans are more resistant
than the population as a whole to new waves of immigrants: More than half of all white baby
boomers and seniors believe that the growing number of newcomers from other countries
represents a threat to traditional values and customs. More than 4 in 10 white seniors said a
growing population of immigrants is a “change for the worse.”
Attitudes like theirs are hardly a new phenomenon. They were evident in the sometimes
violent backlashes against Asian and white ethnic European immigrants who arrived in the 19th
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and early 20th centuries, and in the post-World War II practice of “blockbusting,” in which real
estate agents tried to scare white homeowners into selling at a loss by hinting that black families
would move into their neighborhoods. Yet fear eventually subsided as the tide of demography
led to greater familiarity and acceptance.
Fear of a racially diverse nation seems to be greatest in parts of the population and the country
that have yet to experience this change.
Today’s diversity boom is one of these tides, and it is a godsend, occurring just in time to
counterbalance the aging of our white population. The new census projections show that the
white population, now slowly growing, will begin to decline steadily after 2025, as the number
of white women in their high fertility years drops, and deaths outpace births for decades to come.
Over the next 15 years, the entire under-65 white population will begin to get smaller. At the
same time, the younger part of the U.S. population is growing entirely because the numbers of
racial minorities, especially Latinos, are rising. In a change, the primary driver of growth in the
Latino population isn’t immigration. It’s the number of births to Latino U.S. residents.
This growth gives the U.S. a chance to avert the problems of a stagnating and aging population,
which Japan, Italy and other European nations are already facing. We are gaining a competitive
advantage, and our priority should be to integrate immigrant and native-born minorities and
prepare younger members of minority groups for success. At all levels of government, we should
help provide young families and their children with the education and social services they need
to be productive members of the middle class.
Achieving this will require countering fear of the unknown, especially among older
whites, the only part of the white population that is projected to increase, and the one that votes.
They need to be made aware that this dramatic demographic transformation is underway, and
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that it will benefit them. Investments in younger minorities — whom they may not yet see as
their children and grandchildren — are crucial not only to the success of the nation’s economy
but also to future contributions to government programs like Social Security and Medicare.
“With enlightened leadership, I believe they will come to realize this, and to support investments
in our growing youthful minorities. We are, after all, a nation of immigrants, people who share a
sense of inclusiveness despite flare-ups of racial tension. Guarding the welfare of today’s diverse
young families is in everyone’s interest — so all of us can prosper.” (Frey)
William H. Frey is a demographer and senior fellow with the Metropolitan Policy Program at
the Brookings Institution and author of “Diversity Explosion: How New Racial Demographics
Are Remaking America.”
Lesson Review
This Week in Review
I hope you are enjoying the content and conversation with your classmates thus far in the
course. In week 1, the concept of diversity was defined in general terms and applied to current
trends in American political life. As the readings have shown, diversity can mean many things to
different people. As the class progresses, the concept of diversity will be articulated and analyzed
through the struggles and triumphs of diverse groups in American politics.
Next Week
Now that you have gained some background information on the concept of diversity as it
relates to American political life, next week the course will investigate the United States
Constitution and contested notions of Equality.
Keep In Mind: Begin to think about your Final Research Paper Topic.
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References/Works Cited:
Healey, Joseph F. Diversity and Society: Race, Ethnicity and Gender, 3rd ed. California: Forge
Press, 2010. U.S. Census Bureau (2010). The Hispanic Population: 2010. Retrieved
from https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf
WK2
The US Constitution and Contested Notions of Equality
Review / Watch
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) (Home, History, & Why sections of the website).
GRATZ V. BOLLINGER (02-516) 539 U.S. 244 (2003)
“Equal Rights Amendment” video. (accessed August 15, 2012).
Affirmative Action
Affirmative action is one of the most effective tools for redressing the injustices caused
by our nation’s historic discrimination against people of color and women, and for leveling what
has long been an uneven playing field. A centuries-long legacy of racism and sexism has not
been eradicated despite the gains made during the civil rights era. Avenues of opportunity for
those previously excluded remain far too narrow. Thus, an argument can be made that we need
Affirmative action now more than ever.
According to 1998 U.S. Department of Labor statistics, blacks are almost twice as likely
as whites to be unemployed. The unemployment rate is also higher for Latinos than for whites.
Blacks and Latinos generally earn far less than whites. In 2000, the median weekly earning for
blacks was $459; for Latinos, it was $395. In that period, average income for whites was $590.
Workers of color are still concentrated in the less well-paying, unskilled sector. In 1993, black
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and Latino men were half as likely as whites to be employed as managers or professionals and
much more likely to be employed as machine operators and laborers. Barriers to equality also
remain for women (source).
Affirmative Action – Background
As President Lyndon Johnson said in 1965, “You do not take a person who, for years, has
been hobbled by chains and liberate him, bring him up to the starting line of a race and then say
you are free to compete with all the others, and still just believe that you have been completely
fair.” President Johnson’s speech eloquently stated the rationale behind the contemporary use of
affirmative action programs to achieve equal opportunity, especially in the fields of employment
and higher education.
The emphasis is on opportunity: affirmative action programs are meant to break down
barriers, both visible and invisible, to level the playing field, and to make sure everyone is given
an equal break. They are not meant to guarantee equal results — but instead proceed on the
common-sense notion that if equality of opportunity were a reality, African Americans, women,
people with disabilities and other groups facing discrimination would be fairly represented in the
nation’s work force and educational institutions.
The debate over affirmative action demarcates a philosophical divide, separating those
with sharply different views of the “American dilemma” — how the nation should treat African
Americans, other people of color and women. This division centers on a number of questions: to
what extent discrimination and bias persist, especially in a systemic way; to what degree
affirmative action programs have been effective in providing otherwise unavailable opportunities
in education, employment, and business; and to what extent affirmative action programs appear
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to unduly benefit African Americans and other people of color at the expense of the white
majority.
The continuing need for affirmative action is demonstrated by the data. For example, the
National Asian and Pacific American Legal Consortium reports that although white men make
up only 48% of the college-educated workforce, they hold over 90% of the top jobs in the news
media, 96% of CEO positions, 86% of law firm partnerships, and 85% of tenured college faculty
positions.
Affirmative action is not, as some critics charge, a uniquely modern concept fashioned by
contemporary liberals in defiance of history or tradition. Although the techniques that we now
call “affirmative action” are of fairly recent design, the conceptual recognition of the need to take
affirmative, or positive legal action to redress discrimination’s impact, rather than simply ending
discrimination, has been around since the Civil War. During Reconstruction (the period
immediately after the Civil War), the Constitution was amended and other federal initiatives,
such as the creation of the Freedman’s Bureau, were undertaken to establish equal opportunity
for the former slaves. These initiatives were at least modestly successful, bringing about African
American participation in elections for the first time.
Sporadic efforts to remedy the results of hundreds of years of slavery, segregation and denial
of opportunity have been made since the end of the Civil War.
A significant number of African Americans held public office, including two U.S.
senators and 20 members of the House, between 1870 and 1900. But when the federal
government withdrew its support for Reconstruction in the late 1800s, the gains made by African
Americans were quickly stripped away and replaced by a patchwork system of legal segregation
(including, in some instances, legal segregation of Latinos, Asians, and Native Americans as
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well). By 1896, in Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court had upheld the cornerstone
segregationist doctrine of “separate but equal” – i.e., ruling that the Constitution permitted
governments to require separation of the races in schools, public transportation, and elsewhere,
so long as the opportunities offered the separate races were characterized as equal.
In the modern era, the concept of affirmative a
