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I will provide the assignment file (as8) below and all the extra material there. it is 2 parts and each part has its own box. the Q means the question in general
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Q1)
Provide ONE (only 1) exact word-for-word quotation from the Time-Life video “Good
Rockin’ Tonight” that comments specifically on the relationship of rock music to U.S.
racial relations in the 1950s/’60s.
(Do not paraphrase or abbreviate the quote.)
_____
• Give only ONE full quotation word-for-word and the name of the person who said
it (nothing more—do not give more information or more than one quote). Note: Any
comment that speaks about U.S. racial issues in this video is applicable to the 1950s/’60s for
this assignment.
• The link to the Time-Life video “Good Rockin’ Tonight” is in Lesson 2.
• The name of each commentator is shown on-screen (not in the subtitles–on the screen
of the video itself) the first time they speak in each video, so if their name is not showing,
it appears earlier in the video (go back and find it—it shows for 3 seconds the first time
they speak).
Q2)
Write a personal essay (minimum 200 words/maximum 250 words):
Part 1. First, describe what your understanding was before you took this
classregarding rock-related music’s relationship to U.S. race relations and the U.S. Civil
Rights Movement of the 1950s and ’60s.
Part 2. Then, describe how your understanding has been
either changed or enhanced about this topic after considering what you saw in this video
(and other videos that have been assigned so far in this class).
Focus on YOU. Talk only about what your understanding used to be of the relationship of
rock-related music to the US Civil Rights Movement of the ’50s & ’60s, AND how your
views either changed or were enhanced after considering these videos and commentaries.
Again, this personal essay must be at least 200 words/maximum 250 words.
Beatles “Firsts”(1963 to late 1965)
First band to make rock ‘n’ roll an international phenomenon (not just American).
First rock band to not have one main leader or lead singer (they were 4 equals, with Lennon
and McCartney being more prominent at first.).
First male band to wear long hair—this quickly became a worldwide fashion statement for young
and old that still has impact today. Five years later, longer hair became a huge anti-establishment
statement when John Lennon and Yoko Ono did their anti-Vietnam-War “Hair-Peace”/”Bed-Peace”
activist promotion during their honeymoon week in 1969. (By the way, the long hair idea came
from Stuart Sutcliffe (an early Beatle), who decided while in Hamburg to start wearing his hair like
his German girlfriend Ingrid did (in a down-to-the-neck over-the-ears “bob” style).
First to hold the top 5 songs on the U.S. Billboard Top 100 chart on the same day (Apr 4, 1964).
First rock band to establish albums (not singles) as the primary art form of the industry (this
lasted over 40 years until the advent of mp3s and iTunes/streaming services). Once they hit the big
time, if The Beatles released a single, it was as a completely separate artistic statement that was not
affiliated with an album.
First to establish the expectation that a band writes most or all of its own songs (others rockrelated artists like Chuck Berry, Buddy Holly, Little Richard, etc. had written and performed their
own singles, but original songwriting by bands did not become a standard expectation until The
Beatles wrote most or all of the songs on their albums. (The Beatles made all popular
songwriters much more valuable and famous than they were previously considered.) Lennon
and McCartney are the most prolific popular songwriters of all time.
First band where the engineer/producer (George Martin) was as influential as the band
members in creating and innovating sounds.
They started the “art-rock/Classical-rock” movement (first, by using a “Classical” string quartet
to accompany McCartney’s “Yesterday” on their 1965 Help! Album, then by adding band and
orchestral instruments on parts of their 1967 Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club album).
First band to do “Stadium Rock” (Shea Stadium, New York—August 15, 1965—this was the first
of 10 stadium-/arena-sized concerts they did on their 1965 U.S. Tour. The following year, on August
29, 1966, The Beatles’ concert at Candlestick Park in San Francisco was their last officially live
performance together.
First band to make a record every year at Christmastime that was distributed only to the
members of its fan club (these are still not available on iTunes).
First band to have their own Saturday morning cartoon series (in the U.S. on ABC from 1965 to
1969)
First band to sell Barbie-doll style toy likenesses of themselves, and massively promote
merchandise sales.
Beatles “Firsts”(December 1965 to 1970)
They changed music, film, art, language, and fashion around the world.
First to use a sitar (an Classical/spiritual instrument from India) in a Western recording
(“Norwegian Wood” from their December 1965 Rubber Soul album). They were also the first to
use an all-Indian world-music ensemble to accompany a song (George Harrison’s “Within You
Without You” from their 1967 Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club album).
They were the first rock band to release a widely-distributed “concept album” (their 1967 Sgt.
Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band album has its songs presented in a pre-conceived order and
purpose, as the Beatles left behind their past by literally burying their original outdated selves as
dead wax figures on the album cover, assuming the new name/look/sound of a fictitious band,
following in the anti-establishment footsteps of the many revolutionary artistic/socio-politicalreligious figures depicted on that famous album cover). The Beach Boys’ Brian Wilson was the first
to have the idea for a concept rock album, but the one in their 1966 Pet Sounds album is carefully
hidden (a relationship slowly dies as each successive song about it gets sadder and sadder).
They became the first “studio” band: they had to stop doing live tours because the experimental
music they were making in the studio by 1966 could no longer be re-created onstage.
They wrote the first punk prototype song (“Helter Skelter” from their 1968 “White Album”).
They paved the way for MTV: they were the first to widely distribute highly-influential/
artistically-creative videos to promote new singles. (They did over a dozen such videos between
1965 and 1967; in particular, the music video for “Strawberry Fields Forever” stirred up great
controversy after it was aired on Dick Clark’s American Bandstand teen dance show in March 1967).
First rock band to use a Moog synthesizer in the original instrumentation for a song (actually,
for 4 songs on the Abbey Road album in 1969: “Maxwell’s Silver Hammer,” “I Want You (She’s So
Heavy,” “Here Comes the Sun,” and “Because). The Moody Blues used a real orchestra for the
original scoring of their 1967 Days of Future Passed album, but they had to render the orchestral
parts on a synthesizer during many of their live performances.
First rock band to have their own multimedia corporation (Apple Corps Ltd. [“Apple”],
established in January 1968), with its own record label (Apple Records), film production studio,
music publishing company, electronics division, retail merchandising, and a signed roster of other
artists including James Taylor. The name (pronounced “Apple Core”) is an intentional pun thumbing
its nose at the mainstream industry. In 1981, Apple Computer paid an undisclosed amount to Apple
Records in a trademark infringement case for the rights to use an apple-shaped logo.
First rock band to write and include a piece of electronica on a major album (John Lennon’s
“Revolution 9” from their 1968 “White Album”)—”A Day in the Life” from their 1967 Sgt. Pepper’s
Lonely Hearts Club album was performed by a live experimental orchestra, not electronics).
First rock band to include a ska/reggae song on an album (“Ob-La-Di Ob-La-Da” from their
1968 “White Album”)
They opened the door for the “reality TV” idea with their Magical Mystery Tour movie in 1967
(get on a bus, travel around, record everything, and see what happens).
First and only rock band where each of its members had multiple Number 1 hits after the
band broke up.
The Development of Rock & Roll by Dr. Daniel Jacobson
Ó 2021 All Rights Reserved
CHAPTER 1
THE GENESIS OF ROCK AND ROLL
INTRODUCTION
Rock and Roll arose from the convergence of many musical predecessors, including:
• Black-American Blues (Delta blues, Classic blues, Jump Blues, Electric blues),
Jazz (Swing), Rhythm & Blues, and Gospel
• Country & Western music (especially “country-swing”)
• Folk Music (mostly influential in the 1960s)
• Pop Music (Tin Pan Alley to “crooning”1 ballad singers of the 40s and 50s)
• Anglo-Saxon church hymns
This gradual process was also impacted early on by social issues such as American
segregation and the northward migration of blacks in the 1920s and ‘30s, as well as
technological developments such as the invention of the phonograph, radio and the
electric microphone, amplifier, and guitar.
ROCK and ROLL’S PREDECESSORS
I. Early Blues
Rock & Roll originated primarily from African-American musical traditions. From Africa,
blacks brought a strong, expressive oral tradition of music used for work, storytelling, and
entertainment. Traits commonly found in virtually all African-influenced music include
• highly-sophisticated rhythms
• improvisation (creating music “on-the-spot”)
• “call-and response” technique (the leader initiates a “call,” which is answered by a
group “response”)
Despite the U.S. racial segregation laws that were in place until 1964, black music
adopted various influences from White-southern traditions, such as the use of stringed
instruments and the implementation of harmonic/formal structures from Protestant church
music.2 The earliest developments were made by black slaves who sang blues-like “calland-response” spirituals to help ease their burden as they toiled in the hot cotton fields of
the Southern U.S. during the early/mid-1800s. Out of necessity, these slaves—who were
accustomed to dancing to the syncopated polyrhythms3 of African drums—began
clapping and slapping their bodies in multiple rhythms to simulate a drum-like
accompaniment. These traditions, when fused with the I, IV, V harmonic patterns of
white southern church music,4 ultimately provided the backbone of Jazz, Blues and
Gospel.
1
“Crooning” was a subdued, sentimental style of “pop” singing used by leading male big-band singers and solo
artists of the 1930s, 40s and 50s who were amplified by microphones (Bing Crosby, Dean Martin, etc.).
2
See discussion of “harmony” in “The Elements of Music” (see pp. 194-95).
3
“Polyrhythm”: Several independent rhythmic patterns occurring simultaneously; “Syncopation”: a strong “offthe-beat” accent.
4
See discussion of “blues patterns” in “The Elements of Music” (see p. 201).
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Chapter 1 of The Development of Rock & Roll by Dr. Daniel Jacobson
Ó 2021 All Rights Reserved
Rural Blues (1910s & 20s):
Although the exact date cannot be established, it is widely believed that the first blues
singer was Georgia-born Gertrude “Ma” Rainey (1886-1939). By the time she made her
first recordings in 1923 she was already called “The Mother of the Blues.” Her earthy
style had tremendous impact on many subsequent blues singers—especially her protégé,
Bessie Smith (see below).
Delta Blues (1920s & 30s):
The earliest documented blues style, often called the Delta Blues, arose in the Mississippi
Delta region around 1910-20, as created by solo singer-guitarists such as Charley Patton
(1887-1934), Robert Johnson (1911-38)5:, Leadbelly (Huddie Ledbetter, 1885-1949)
and Sam “Lightnin’ Hopkins (1912-82).6 Important style traits of the blues that emerged
from its onset are bent-note melodies and backbeat rhythm (emphasizing beats “2” and
“4”, instead of “1” and “3” in a 4/4 meter).
Selected Examples of DELTA BLUES
• Charley Patton: “Stone Pony Blues” (c1920s)
• Robert Johnson: “Cross Road Blues” (c. late 1920s),
“Sweet Home Chicago” (c late 1920s)
• Sam “Lightnin’ Hopkins: “Mojo Hand” and “Gambler’s Blues”
recorded in mid-1950s)
(both
II. The Blues Move North
During and shortly after World War I, many black Americans left the rural south in search
of jobs in northern industrial centers—especially Chicago.7 The blues came north with
them, and in this new environment, it took on new guises.
Classic Blues (1920s & 30s):
The Classic Blues was a more refined style promoted in the late 1920s/early 1930s by
Bessie Smith (1894-1937), who performed/recorded to the accompaniment of only a
piano and solo trumpet (which offered “responses” and instrumental fills). 8
Selected Example of CLASSIC BLUES
• Bessie Smith (1894-1937): “Down Hearted Blues (c 1920s)
Urban Blues (1920s & 30s):
Soon after, a harder-edged blues with a more powerful instrumentation emerged,
following concurrent trends in big-band Jazz. This style, called Urban Blues, was most
5
Robert Johnson only recorded from 1936-38.
Hopkins was an important link because he continued to perform and record up through the 1960s
7
Chicago’s Black population grew from 40,000 in 1910 to over 230,000 in 1930.
8
This style paved the way for more commercially successful blues singers such as Billie Holiday and white
blues “cover” artists such as Judy Garland.
6
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Chaptert 1: The Genesis of Rock and Roll
often played by ensembles (groups of instruments) comprised of a rhythm section (guitar
and/or piano, bass and drums), solo instrument(s) (piano, saxophone, trumpet, clarinet or
some other wind instrument), and at times a full jazz band. This ensemble would back up
the featured blues singer in a “call-and-response” dialogue, and play instrumental
choruses between the singer’s verses.9 The artists of the early Urban Blues were migrant
singer-guitarists from the South, such as Blind Lemon Jefferson (1897-1929)10, “Big”
Bill Broonzy (c1893-1958), and T-Bone Walker (1910-75).
III. The Blues Intensify via Jazz and Technology Influences (1930s, 40s and 50s):
Jazz-Swing Influences (1930s & 40s):
As early as the 1930s, strong precursors of rock & roll can be found in highly-rhythmic
Swing-style Jazz. In the early 1940s, jazz guitarist Charlie Christian (1916-42)
pioneered the use of the electric guitar, while other jazz greats such as vibraphonist Lionel
Hampton (b. 1909) began emphasizing heavy “riffs,” 11 which ultimately had a strong
influence on electric guitar solo-playing in emerging blues and rock styles.
Jump Blues and Rhythm and Blues (1940s & 50s):
In the 1940s and 50s, a new “boogie-woogie”12, jazz-influenced style of Jump Blues
became popular with both black and white listeners, as promoted by jazz/blues crossover
“shouters” such as Cab Calloway (1907-94), Louis Jordan (1908-75), Wynonie Harris
(1915-69), Willie Mae “Big Mama” Thornton (1911-85), Ruth Brown
(1928-2006), and Big Joe Turner (1911-85). This style developed into Rhythm and
Blues (R & B)—the most important precursor to Rock and Roll.
Selected Examples of JUMP BLUES (early R & B)
• Louis Jordan: “Caldonia” (1945)
• Wynonie Harris: “Good Rockin’ Tonight” (1948)
• Big Mama Thornton: “Hound Dog” (1952; original Leiber & Stoller version)
• Ruth Brown: “Mama, He Treats Your Daughter Mean” (1953)
• Big Joe Turner: “Shake, Rattle and Roll” (1954), “Bump Miss Suzi” (c 1954)
Chicago “Electric” Blues (late 1940s & 50s):
The invention and mass production of the electric guitar in the 1940s by Les Paul and Leo
Fender13 eventually gave rise to the Electric Blues style, as made famous by the second
generation of Chicago-based artists: Johnny Lee (“Sonny Boy No. 2”) Williamson
(actual name Rice Miller, 1899-1965), Howlin’ Wolf (Chester Burnett, 1910-78), Muddy
Waters (McKinley Morganfield, 1915-83), Willie Dixon (primarily known as a
songwriter, 1915-92), Elmore James (1918-63), John Lee Hooker (1917-2001), Riley
“Blues Boy” (B. B.) King (1925-2015),.and Bo Diddley (Ellas McDaniel, 1928-2008).
9
See discussion of “Verse/Chorus” song-forms in “The Elements of Music” (see pp. 199-200).
Jefferson recorded for only the last three years of his life (1926-29, Paramount Records). He died either in his
car or on the streets of Chicago during a snowstorm in 1929.
11
Riff: a short, repetitive/reusable melodic pattern that becomes the basis for developing a solo improvisation.
12
Boogie-woogie: a jazz style developed by black jazz pianists in the 1920s that is characterized by a doubletime rhythm pattern (1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &) with strong off-beat accents.
13
Les Paul (a famous jazz/big-band guitarist) pioneered the hand-made solid body guitar/electric pick-up
concept, while Leo Fender was the first to successfully mass-produce these technologies.
10
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Chapter 1 of The Development of Rock & Roll by Dr. Daniel Jacobson
Ó 2021 All Rights Reserved
This intensely expressive style of blues/R & B soon led the way to the emergence of Rock
and Roll; in fact, many rock scholars believe that music of Muddy Waters and Howlin’
Wolf from c1952-54 constitute the first examples of actual Rock and Roll.14
Selected Examples of “ELECTRIC” BLUES/R & B
Chicago-50s style
• Muddy Waters: “Rollin’ Stone” (1948), “I Got My Mojo Workin’” (c 1952)
• Howlin’ Wolf: “Spoonful” (1954), “Smokestack Lightnin’” (1954)
• Bo Diddley: “Bo Diddley” (1954), “I’m a Man” (1955)
• B.B. King: “Sweet Little Angel” (1956); “Sweet Sixteen” (c 1970s)
Texas-80s style
• Stevie Ray Vaughn: “Texas Flood” (1982)
IV. Technological/Social Changes that Increased Interest in R & B/Rock & Roll
In the late 1940s & 1950s, several new developments in recording/broadcasting
technology fueled the rapid rise of R & B and served as a catalyst for emerging rock and
roll styles:
• In 1948, “microgroove technology” (based on World War II audio research) gave
rise to long-playing 33 1/3 RPM record albums (“LPs”) and 45 RPM “singles.”15
• Portable transistor radios and AM car radios were common by 1951. Rebel disc
jockeys such as Alan Freed (1926-65)16 began to promote R & B and emerging
Rock & Roll to white audiences, despite segregation laws and racial backlash.
• In 1954, the landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision of Brown vs. The Board of
Education of Topeka, Kansas (which struck down the “separate but equal”
standard that sustained American segregation) allowed black music to be “legally”
more acceptable to white teens.
• By the mid-1950s, black-and-white television had become an important vehicle for
the promotion of popular music. (Elvis Presley made his first TV appearances in
1955.)
• The rising post-World War II economy in the U.S. gave teenagers increasingly more
spending money—much of which they lavished on the latest records.
14
In subsequent decades, the Electric Blues tradition has been carried on by great singer-guitarists such as
Stevie Ray Vaughn (1954-90), as exemplified by songs like “Texas Flood” (1982).
15
LPs replaced the bulky 78 RPM albums that were the standard in the 1920s-40s. Although 78s were
approximately the same size as an LP, 78s could only hold approximately 6 minutes of music per side, as
compared to approximately 22 minutes per side on an LP. With the new microgroove technology
(developed by Goldmark), a small 45 RPM single could hold as much as a 78 RPM disc (and with greater
fidelity).
16
Freed, who did syndicated Rock & Roll radio shows in Cleveland and eventually New York City, is widely
credited with coining the term “rock and roll, “ though “rocking and rolling” had long been a Black
euphemism for dancing, partying, and sexual pleasures.
4
Chaptert 1: The Genesis of Rock and Roll
***
V. The Rise and Importance of Independent Record Labels
In the late 1940s/1950s, the popular recording industry in the U.S. was tightly controlled
by a handful of major record companies, most notably RCA, Decca, Columbia and
Capitol. These companies were primarily interested in promoting Big-Band “crooners,”
“middle-of-the-road” Swing and Pop music to generally conservative white listeners. In
response to this, several small independent record companies gradually came upon the
scene in an effort to promote black music. The three most important independent record
companies of the 1950s were Chess, Atlantic and Sun.
• Chess Records: a Chicago-based label that began as Aristocrat Records, and then
was changed to Chess Records in 1948 shortly after it was purchased by
Leonard and Phil Chess. Featured Chess artists included Muddy Waters,
Howlin’ Wolf, Elmore James, Sonny Boy Williamson, Bo Diddley
and Chuck Berry.
• Atlantic Records: a New York-based label founded in 1947 by Herb Abramson
and Ahmet Ertegun (the son of a Turkish Ambassador). In 1953, Jerry Wexler
(former journalist with Billboard magazine) joined the company and became its
head producer. In the mid-50s, Nesuhi Ertegun (Ahmet’s brother), and Wexler
attracted an amazing array of jazz and R & B artists to Atlantic, including Ruth
Brown, Big Joe Turner, The Drifters, The Coasters, Ray Charles and even
white crossover artists such as Bobby Darin. Many of their hits were composed
by the acclaimed songwriting team of Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller.17
• Sun Records: a small Memphis-based company founded by Sam Phillips
(a former radio disc jockey). The company began in the early 1950s as the
Memphis Recording Service, in which Phillips leased his recorded master
discs to Chess and other independent labels for record-pressing and
distribution. In this way, he launched the careers of B. B. King, Howlin’
Wolf, Bobby “Blue Bland and many other R & B artists. In 1952, Phillips
established the Sun label. Two years later, he began recording country
musicians, and this blend of country and R & B soon made Phillips the leading
proponent of Rockabilly music. For a brief time, Sun Records simultaneously
had Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Jerry Lee Lewis and Johnny Cash on its
roster of artists.
Other notable independent record labels of the ‘50s were:
• Modern Records (Los Angeles): B. B. King
• Specialty Records (Los Angeles): Little Richard
• Imperial Records (LA—Lew Chudd, founder): “Fats” Domino (and Rick Nelson)
• King Records (Cincinnati—Syd Nathan, founder): Wynonie Harris
***
17
Atlantic continued to play a major role in the promotion of black music through the 60s Soul movement.
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Chapter 1 of The Development of Rock & Roll by Dr. Daniel Jacobson
Ó 2021 All Rights Reserved
VI. From R & B to Rock & Roll (1950s)
Blues- and R & B-based Rock and Roll (mid-late 1950s):
In the early 1950s, many issues impeded the transfer of black R & B across to white
audiences. Racial segregation in the U.S. was a sad fact of life in the 1940s and 50s, and
music followed suit: Black musicians wrote and performed black music for black
audiences, and white musicians wrote and performed (more conservatively) for white
audiences. In the mid-50s, these barriers began to break down, largely because of the
efforts of courageous black and white performers, disc jockeys and independent record
producers who intentionally promoted their music across racial lines.
New Orleans R & B (mid-late 1950s):
Antoine “Fats” Domino (born 1928), Lloyd Price (born 1933) and others pioneered the
keyboard-and-horn driven sound of New Orleans R & B. Fats Domino’s smooth vocals
and rolling piano style helped make him one of R & B’s most successful crossover artists,
while Lloyd Price offered a more intense model that incorporated elements of the Gospel
tradition. Both were influential on the emergence of Rock and Roll in the mid-late 1950s.
The most important New-Orleans R & B/Rock & Roll artist of the 50s, however, was the
singer-pianist Little Richard (Richard Penniman, b. 1935). In his unique earthy and
raucous style, Little Richard fused Rhythm & Blues (“shouter-style”), Gospel and Jump
Blues into an early prototype of Rock and Roll. In 1957, at the height of his popularity,
Little Richard shocked the music world by abandoning rock and roll to become a minister.
Selected Examples of ‘50s New Orleans R & B—Rock & Roll
• Fats Domino: “Ain’t That a Shame” (1955), “Blue Monday” (1957),
“Blueberry Hill (1957)
• Lloyd Price: “Stagger Lee” (1959)
• Little Richard: “Tutti Frutti” (1956), “Ready Teddy” (1957), “Lucille” (1957)
***
White “Covers” of R & B
Because of racial segregation, many white listeners got their first taste of black R & B
through watered-down “cover” versions of black songs as sung by white artists. The
most successful of these 50s “cover” artists was Pat Boone (b. 1934), who was also a pop
“crooner,” teen-idol film star, and eventually a well-known Christian singer.18 As strange
as these “cover” versions may seem to us in retrospect, they played an essential part in the
development of rock and roll by serving as a transitional buffer between black and white
traditions at this critical juncture in rock history. On the other hand, the downside of the
18
From 1955-84, Pat Boone was the fifth best-selling rock/pop artist (behind Elvis Presley, The Beatles, Stevie
Wonder, and The Rolling Stones), and Boone was actualy the 2nd-biggest selling artist of the 1950s after
Elvis. As Greg Shaw describes in The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock’n’Roll, Boone “began as a
safe alternative to Elvis, and is still a safe alternative to just about everything.” In 1997, however, Boone
shocked his conservative followers by appearing as a presenter at the Grammy Awards in black leather,
chains, and pierced ears. His subsequent album was entitled In a Metal Mood: No More Mr. Nice Guy.
6
Chaptert 1: The Genesis of Rock and Roll
“cover” tradition was that the original artist would rarely receive any royalty for their
efforts, even if the record company made an enormous profit off the “covered” song.19
Selected Examples of “Cover” Versions of R & B Songs
• Pat Boone: “Ain’t That a Shame” (1956), “Tutti Frutti” (1957)
***
VII. Country & Western Influences on Emerging Rock & Roll
Country Swing (late 1920s-50s)
In the 1920s, Southern U.S. folk (“Hillbilly”) music began to adopt the backbeat rhythm
and bent-note melodic style of the blues, creating Country Swing. This style is best
represented by the Delmore Brothers, Jimmie Rodgers (1897-1933), Bob Wills (190575). In the late 40s/early 50s, the progressive country-swing “boogie” style of Hank
Williams Sr. (1923-53) provided a direct transition to Rockabilly in the mid-late 50s.
Selected Example of 50s Country-Swing
• Hank Williams, Sr.: “Hey, Good Lookin’” (1952)
Rockabilly (mid-late 1950s)
Rockabilly (considered by many to be the first true Rock & Roll genre) was strongly
rooted in both country-swing and R & B, but with a faster tempo (beat speed). The
“Country” side of the balance is more clearly evident in the music of Johnny Cash (19322003), Bill Haley (1925-81) and His Comets, Carl Perkins (1932-98), Buddy Holly
(1936-59) and the Crickets, The Everly Brothers (Don and Phil Everly), Rick Nelson20
(1940-85), and Roy Orbison (1936-88; strong “pop” roots also). The Blues/R & B side
of the balance is more clearly evident in the music of Elvis Presley (1935-77), Gene
Vincent (1935-71), Eddie Cochran (1938-60) and Jerry Lee Lewis (b. 1935).
A few of these rockabilly artists were able to draw the interest of a major record company;
• Decca: Bill Haley and Buddy Holly
• Capitol: Gene Vincent–his big hit was “Be-Bop-a-Lula” (1956)
however, most were originally discovered and promoted by small, yet highly influential
independent record companies:
• Sun: Presley—Cash—Lewis—Perkins (“The Million Dollar Quartet”) and Orbison
• Cadence: The Everly Brothers
• Imperial: Rick Nelson
• Liberty: Eddie Cochran
19
One tragic example of this abuse befell blues legend Arthur “Big Boy” Crudup. While under contract with
RCA from 1941-56, Crudup recorded 80 “sides,” many of which were also recorded by major white artists
who gave him no royalty. After a two-year battle, Crudup reached an apparent settlement with RCA for
$60,000, but they reneged on verbal agreement because a lawsuit would cost them less money.
20
Ricky Nelson first came to fame with his real family on their 50s TV show, Ozzie and Harriet.
7
Chapter 1 of The Development of Rock & Roll by Dr. Daniel Jacobson
Ó 2021 All Rights Reserved
Selected Examples of 50s/early 60s Rockabilly
• Bill Haley and His Comets: “Shake, Rattle and Roll” (1954),
“Rock Around the Clock” (1955)
• Elvis Presley: “Heartbreak Hotel” (1956), “Money, Honey” (1956)
“Hound Dog” (1956), “Jailhouse Rock” (1956), “Blue Moon of Kentucky” (1957)
• Johnny Cash: “Folsom Prison Blues” (1956)
• Carl Perkins: “Blue Suede Shoes” (1956)
• Buddy Holly and the Crickets: “That’ll Be the Day” (1957),
“Oh, Boy” (1957), “Peggy Sue” (1957)
• Jerry Lee Lewis: “Whole Lotta Shakin’ Goin’ On” (1957),
“Great Balls of Fire” (1957)
• The Everly Brothers: “Bye, Bye Love” (1957); “Cathy’s Clown” (c1958)
• Eddie Cochran: “Summertime Blues” (1959)
• Roy Orbison: “Only the Lonely” (1960); “Pretty Woman” (1964)
• Ricky Nelson: “Hello Mary Lou, Goodbye Heart” (1961)
Two other important Black innovators of the 1950s—Hank Ballard and Chuck Berry
were influenced to a large degree by Country & Western elements. In the mid-50s, Hank
Ballard promoted a sexier side of early R & B that he partially attributes to the music of
Country & Western balladeer/movie cowboy, Gene Autry (1907-98). Chuck Berry
(1926-2017)—one of the most important pioneers of early rock and roll—merged guitar
influences from T-Bone Walker and Muddy Waters with a vocal style derived from
Country & Western music. Berry is lauded as one of rock’s legendary guitarists and also
as one of its finest lyricists. In 1959, at his height of popularity, Berry was sentenced to
two years in jail for transporting a 14-year-old girl (an alleged prostitute) across state lines
for immoral purposes.21
Selected Examples Country & Western-influenced R & B
• Hank Ballard and The Midnighters: “Work With Me Annie” (1954)
• Chuck Berry: “Maybellene” (1955), “Roll Over Beethoven” (c1957),
“Sweet Little Sixteen” (1958), “Rock and Roll Music” (1958)
***
VIII. Responses to the Rising Popularity of R & B/Rock & Roll
Racist Backlash, Boycotts, and “Watered-Down” Commercialization
In the late 1940s, R & B was labeled “Race Music” when being advertised and
distributed to white buyers. By the early 1950s, it began to be called “Rhythm & Blues.”
As this music became more widely disseminated in the 50s, many parents, teachers,
lawmakers, clergy and the conservative media came to view R & B and emerging Rock
& Roll styles as a blight on society. They joined forces with the major record companies
and their pop/ crooner artists and songwriters in an attempt to hold back the rising tide of
21
By the time Berry re-emerged on the rock and roll scene in the early 1960s, he could not find a place in the
U.S. market that had begun to promote a much more conservative “pop”/teen idol style (see Chapter 2).
8
Chaptert 1: The Genesis of Rock and Roll
Rock music through boycotts and pressure on rebel disc jockeys and distributors. Racial
slurs, censorship, physical violence against black artists began to occur. Black artists
including The Drifters, 5 Royales, Hank Ballard, Ray Charles, and Jimmy
Witherspoon were censored. At the height of the madness, the beloved 50s Black
pop/crooner Nat “King” Cole was viciously attacked on stage in April 1956 by members
of the White Citizens’ Council of Birmingham, Alabama.
In response to this negative campaign, the independent labels (“indies”) became much
more aggressive and creative, even to the point of selling records out of the trunks of cars
to thousands of eager teens. Eventually, the “majors” realized the tremendous potential
crossover market for R & B, so they began promoting white “covers” of R & B, which
quickly began to undermine the power of the “indies.” Slowly, the majors began to draw
leading artists away from the smaller labels; however, for a time both Sun Records and
Atlantic Records successfully withstood the pressure.22
***
Presley Mania
In 1955, RCA bought the rights to Elvis Presley from Sun Records for $35,000. With
some clever maneuvering by Presley’s manager—“Colonel” Tom Parker, Elvis made a
series of appearances on nationally-broadcast TV variety shows hosted by Tommy &
Jimmy Dorsey, Ed Sullivan, Milton Berle, and Steve Allen.23 Presley became a smash
success, but also created considerable controversy. With juvenile delinquency on the
rise—promoted by the release of such films as Rebel Without a Cause (starring James
Dean) and Blackboard Jungle (starring the young Marlon Brando and featuring Bill
Haley’s “Rock Around the Clock”)—concerned parents, civil authorities, church leaders
and conservative disc jockeys began to boycott Presley’s concerts and speak out against
his apparent negative influence on teens. In response, Elvis toned down his wild stage
manner,24 he featured his favorite Gospel songs at his shows and o
